Skip to Main Content
Skip Nav Destination

In recent years, there has been a clear breakthrough in the discovery of new bioactive compounds and the development of functional food ingredients for the prevention of diseases. Traditionally, legumes have been considered as foods with beneficial effects for human health. Legumes are plants of the family Fabaceae whose seeds represent a basic pillar of human nutrition since ancient times. In addition to a very adequate nutrient content in carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals, legumes also contain a great variety of non-nutrient compounds considered bioactive compounds with antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and anticarcinogenic properties. Nowadays, there is an increasing trend and research activity for incorporating legumes in innovative food products and formulations, which will help towards increasing legume consumption and improving human diet throughout the world.

Legumes belong to the family Fabaceae whose seeds represent a basic pillar of human nutrition since ancient times. Nowadays, legumes play an important role due to their nutritional and health associated benefits,1–7  together with economic and environmental factors crucial in our sustainable future.8  Legumes are safe for consumption, relatively inexpensive and also easily available, being present in the diet of millions of individuals around the world. From academic and governmental institutions, a great effort is being made to promote the value and use of legumes throughout the food system, and to make everyone aware of their benefits. To achieve this objective, it is necessary to increase their global production, integrating them into cropping systems, improving the research of new legume varieties, developing novel management strategies and overcoming the current market challenges.9  In this sense, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) announced the International Year of Pulses in 2016.10  FAO-UN supported them on the following areas: (i) pulses are highly nutritious, (ii) pulses are economically accessible and contribute to food security at all levels, (iii) pulses have important health benefits, (iv) pulses contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation, (v) pulses promote biodiversity.10 

In general, legumes are characterized as providing high contents of proteins and complex carbohydrates such as dietary fiber and resistant starch, and low levels of lipids, as well as being an important source of minerals such as Fe, Zn and Ca.10  They contain important levels of vitamins, such as folate, which reduces the risk of neural tube defects. In addition, they provide bioactive compounds that contribute to the prevention of chronic diseases.11  Researchers have reported that these compounds are associated with a reduction in the risks of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), diabetes and some types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer.1,3–5,7 

Legumes are one of the most nutritious foods in the world and combined with other products are the basis of diet for a large part of the world's population, especially in poorer areas where meat, dairy products and fish are economically inaccessible.10  Legumes are densely packed with proteins, twice the amount found in whole grain cereals. When combined with other foods, such as cereals, the protein quality of legumes is further increased.

The legume crops are essential for sustainable agriculture and they can adapt to climate change, being cultivated in arid climates with limited or erratic rainfall. Scientists are currently working on the development of legume varieties that can grow at temperatures that are 4 or 5 degrees higher than the usual temperature.12  The goal is to adapt legumes to the effects of climate change such as rising temperatures. In addition, legumes can also fix biological nitrogen into the soil, increasing its fertility and allowing less use of agrochemicals and fertilizers. For example, 85 million hectares of pulses were grown worldwide that fixed from 3 to 6 tons of nitrogen in 2014. Consequently, these crops can help to achieve an adequate and efficient use of fertilizers, resulting in reduced greenhouse gas emissions.10  One factor that is of concern today is the excessive accumulation of salts in the soil and the use of saline groundwater in legume production worldwide.13  It is known that saline stress alters the photosynthetic process and hormonal regulation and contributes to the nutritional imbalance in legumes, decreasing yield and grain quality.8  One solution would be to consider the development of transgenic crops and management strategies to achieve an increase in the yield of grain legumes in saline soils. In addition, legumes are also highly efficient in the use of water, especially in comparison with other sources of protein. For example, 1 kg of cooked beef requires 10 times more water than 1 kg of lentils.10  Furthermore, intercropping with legumes increases biodiversity creating a more diverse landscape for animals and insects. Therefore, legumes must be preserved and enriched through the development of new varieties resistant to adverse crop conditions, improving their nutritional value and optimizing their health benefits.

Because legumes provide numerous benefits they may act as an affordable ally against malnutrition. Nowadays, they may be considered as a superfood for the future, enabling us to reach zero hunger at a time when one in five children under 5 years of age is chronically malnourished.14  Legumes are more accessible to lower-income families and have a beneficial influence on physiological functions by improving the state of well-being and health, and reducing or preventing the risk of diseases. In fact, promising progress has been observed in the areas of South America and the Caribbean in the fight against hunger.15  However, as the production of legumes is still lower than that of other basic products, such as cereals, starchy roots and vegetables, it is necessary to raise awareness about their benefits and encourage greater production of these crops. For this reason, it is convenient if the design of farming systems is local and based on regional expert knowledge.8 

However, at a global level, the consumption of legumes has been reduced by an increase in the consumption of products of animal origin, especially in developed countries, which has led to a number of important health problems. The profile of the consumer has been changed and new preferences and needs in the food market have emerged. There are different reasons to develop new food products, such as the nutritional and health demands of the different sectors of the population and the reduction and/or elimination of certain nutrients, as well as the incorporation of others (dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids, etc.), which can provide a health benefit and a better quality of life for consumers.16 

In this sense, legumes are of special interest as a healthy and tasty alternative to the high-calorie diets prevalent in developed countries. In some population groups a low risk of suffering from chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer, has been identified, and this has been attributed to a diversified eating style, either in food or in its components.16 

The chemical composition of the legumes varies between the different types of seeds. The average energy content of legumes is, in general, high (330–374 kcal/100 g dry matter).10  The amount of proteins in legumes varies greatly depending on the species, and ranges between 20 and 35%. The protein content is considered high compared with cereals and is rich in the amino acid lysine and sulfur amino acids such as methionine, both of which are limited in most plant foods. Legumes in combination with other cereals such as corn and other products rich in starches and with low protein value significantly increase the nutritional value of the diet.17  However, their nutritional value is poor compared to proteins of animal origin. Several factors are involved, such as the legume proteins have a storage function, their quaternary structure is more compact, which makes the action of digestive enzymes difficult, and the presence of protease inhibitors inhibits the activity of proteases, the digestive enzymes.18,19 A priori, all these factors seem to affect their digestibility. However, during their traditional culinary preparation, the nutritional value can be improved because the thermal treatments inactivate the protease inhibitors as will be described in Chapter 10.

The processing induces structural changes in proteins, which facilitates the accessibility of the digestive enzymes, and favors protein metabolism.18  In addition, the protein content is often overestimated, since legumes have a high proportion of non-protein nitrogen (peptides, free amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds) that is quantified as total protein and this should be taken into account for the nutritional studies.

On the other hand, carbohydrates in legumes are considered complex, which, unlike simple carbohydrates such as sugars, are slowly digested and absorbed by the intestine, which favors their consumption by diabetic individuals.7  Starch is the predominant carbohydrate in legumes (75–80%), except in oilseeds; in peanuts the starch content accounts for one third of the total carbohydrates, while soybeans exhibit a very low starch content. Legumes are also rich in dietary fiber, and it is the soluble fiber fraction that is relevant (approximately 16–20%).21–26  This type of fiber plays a leading role because it facilitates water adsorption in the intestine. Thus, the intestinal bolus increases, facilitating intestinal movement and preventing constipation.20  Clinical trials and epidemiological studies have reported that dietary fiber contained in beans, helps to lower blood cholesterol levels. This fact is very important in the prevention and reduction of risk of cardiovascular diseases.27  In this regard, legumes are also low in fat, with values from 1 to 4%, except for oilseeds that show mean values of 18% for soybeans and 50% for peanuts. The lipid fraction is characterized by a high content of triglycerides, with a high level of monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid, 18:1) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (linoleic acids, 18:2 and a-linoleic acid 18:3). Recent studies have reported an interesting n-6/n-3 ratio of PUFAs, highlighting lentils and Azuki beans with values of 4.0 and 3.2 respectively, providing them a health-promoting benefit, such as reduced risk of CVD.28 

In addition, legumes are low in sodium (3–41 mg per 100 g)10  and high in potassium (616–2300 mg per 100 g),10  very important factors for the maintenance of an adequate blood pressure. It should be noted that the legume-based meal varies according to the method of preparation for consumption. For example, cooked legumes may contain a higher sodium content due to the addition of salt and other condiments. These factors should be taken into account in preparing a healthy diet. Important minerals are present in legumes such as calcium (32–394 mg per 100 g), phosphorus (203–800 mg per 100 g), magnesium (58–472 mg per 100 g), iron (3.2–10 mg per 100 g), and zinc (1.6–6.3 mg per 100 g).10  Calcium, phosphorus and magnesium are important for bone mineralization resulting in strong bones and helping to prevent osteoporosis.29  Legumes also provide iron, a limiting mineral in diets and its lack produces anemia, a common health problem in children and women of reproductive age, mainly during pregnancy. Zinc is also very important for the proper growth of children and the maintenance of the immune system. However, the presence of phytic acid in legumes results in the formation of insoluble complexes with the divalent cations (Ca2+, Fe2+ and Zn2+) interfering in their absorption and thus, reducing their bioavailability. Although legumes exhibit a high content of Fe, the form of its presentation in plant foods (non-heme iron) shows a lower bioavailability than hemo iron from animal-derived foods. In addition, a high proportion of phosphorus is part of the chemical structure of phytic acid, so it is not available to the body.30 

Legumes exhibit a great variability in their vitamin content and they are a source of B vitamins such as thiamine (0.3–1.6 mg per 100 g), the level being similar or even higher than that of cereals. They contain riboflavin (0.12–0.33 mg per 100 g) and niacin (traces-4.7 mg per 100 g), essential for energy metabolism.10  In addition, the contribution of folic acid (0.4–2.1 mg per 100 g) is important as it is a critical nutrient during pregnancy and for the proper development of the neural tube of the fetus.31  The level of vitamin C is rather low in legumes (0.4–27.7 mg per 100 g dry matter), its content is positively correlated to the antioxidant capacity of the water soluble components.32  Numerous studies have shown the high increment of this vitamin during germination.33  The content of liposoluble vitamins is low in legumes, except α-tocopherol (vitamin E) in soybeans and peanuts. The γ-tocopherol in legumes is the most abundant, the greatest levels being reported in peas, pigeon peas and lentils.34 

In recent years, there has been a clear breakthrough in the discovery of new bioactive compounds and the development of functional food ingredients for the prevention of chronic diseases. Apart from an adequate nutrient content in carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals, legumes also possess a variety of non-nutrient compounds considered bioactive with antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and anticarcinogenic properties.34  Among them, legumes display a great variety of phenolic compounds and, especially, a high proportion of condensed tannins.35  A few decades ago tannins were considered as a non-nutritional factor, due to their ability to form complexes with proteins and divalent minerals, interfering in their absorption and digestive utilization; nowadays, they are part of the bioactive components of food because of their its antioxidant capacity. The phenolic profiles of legumes varied greatly as a consequence of the solvent used in their extraction.36  The phenolic compounds identified in peas, beans, lentils and chickpeas have been hydroxybenzoic acids, aldehydes, hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives, flavonol glycosides and isoflavones (daizdezein and genistein), which have been extensively described in Chapters 2 and 3. The concentrations of these compounds in the raw seeds are different depending on the type of legume.36  Because of the processing, modifications in the content of these compounds have been detected. Different studies have shown that the amount of flavonol glycosides increases after cooking of chickpeas and after germination of peas, beans and lentils. In general, the composition among species of legumes is nutritionally very similar. The difference between phenolic compound levels leads to the legume's characteristic colour.37  In the case of beans, a higher content of polyphenols and anthocyanins results in more colorful beans and therefore less colorful beans such as white beans have a lower content of these compounds.38  These bean phenolic compounds present a great antioxidant capacity, corroborated in in vitro and in vivo assays, and they may reduce the capacity to develop chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.38  In conclusion, it has been reported that black beans are superior to whites in the prevention of chronic diseases.

Some compounds of legume seeds have been considered as non-nutritional factors, ranging from oligosaccharides, tannins, and alkaloids to various groups of proteins with storage and no storage functions. Previously these components have been classified as anti-nutrients because of their low availability for metabolization and the fact that they may induce adverse effects if they are not inactivated by processing before consumption. On the other hand, the nutritional interest is clearly different for animal production, with fast levels of growth along with weight gain being important, while human nutrition targets a balanced diet. Recently, the anti-nutrient term has become settled as non-nutritional or bioactive compounds because they are involved in some health promoting effects in humans; they are described in Chapter 7.39 

Among the legume non-nutritional factors, α-galactosides have received good deal of attention over many decades.39  The presence of these indigestible oligosaccharides differs among legumes, reaching up to 10% dry matter. The family of raffinose oligosaccharides (α-galactosyl derivatives of sucrose) is fermented by bacteria in the colon, due to the lack of α-galactosidase, and produces gases (H2, CO2, and CH4) that lead to an uncomfortable inflation of the abdomen known as flatulence and osmotic diarrhea.40 

However, these compounds are water soluble, if legumes are subjected to soak for at least an hour before cooking, these compounds, along with other non-nutritional compounds contained in the raw grains, remain in the soaking water.41,42  Soaking is more efficient when sodium bicarbonate is added to the soaking water due to the greater permeability obtained by the partial solubilization of the cell walls.23  Germination or fermentation processes might also be applied to achieve the partial elimination of α-galactosides. Recently, these compounds have been attributed some of the beneficial properties of dietary fiber such as normalizing intestinal transit, increasing the number of colonies of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria by decreasing those enterobacteria present in the intestinal microflora, and reducing the N-nitroso compounds. In this sense, these oligosaccharides are purified and marketed to improve the microbiota health. Recently, some studies have shown their characteristics as immune-stimulators in in vivo assays in addition to their prebiotic effects.43 

Phytic acid (IP6) is the myosinophosphate hexaphosphate ester and represents the main form of phosphorus storage in legumes, reaching up to 3–5%. Phytic acid is considered a non-nutritive factor since the six phosphate groups of the IP6 molecule make it a strong chelating agent, reducing the bioavailability mainly of divalent cations, such as Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+. Under the pH conditions of the gastrointestinal tract, insoluble metal–phytic complexes are formed, reducing their digestive utilization and subsequent assimilation in animals and humans. IP6 can also interact with proteins, leading to the formation of phytate–protein complexes that affect the solubility and digestibility of dietary proteins, as well as the inhibition of digestive enzymes such as pepsin, trypsin and α-amylase.42  The cooking process reduces slightly the initial phytic acid content, although the decrease detected is dependent on the treatment conditions (temperature and time), the pH and the presence of proteins and the cations associated with the phytic acid molecule. The germination and fermentation of legume seeds allow the reduction of the phytic acid content, by increasing phytase activity, an enzyme that is found in a natural form in seeds and catalyzes the hydrolysis of IP6 to inositol plus orthophosphate.22,25  The treatment with exogenous phytases applied during the manufacture of processed foods also reduces the IP6 content, which is of great interest to increase the mineral bioavailability in foods.44 

Phytic acid exhibits antioxidant activity due to its chelating properties of iron, acting as a powerful inhibitor of the formation of hydroxyl iron radicals. Recent studies have attributed to phytic acid the potential to prevent colon cancer due to its roles in decreasing lipid peroxidation and hydroxyl radical formation, wherein it complexes with iron present in the colon. In addition, researchers have reported IP6 may increase blood NK cell activity in the colon tumor and may inhibit its growth and metastasis in rats.45 

Enzyme inhibitors and lectins have been described as antinutritional factors over last decades.1  Some studies have shown growth inhibition in different animal models and a reduction in starch and protein digestibility. α-Amylase inhibitors are found in most legumes, their presence displays an effect on starch digestibility, slowing the rate of its digestion and causing glucose suppression after legume intake. The protease inhibitors represent 0.2–2% by weight of soluble legume proteins. The best known are the inhibitors of trypsin and chymotrypsin.46  Numerous studies carried out with rats, chickens and pigs showed that the presence of protease inhibitors exerts a negative effect on growth and can cause pancreatic hypertrophy, overstimulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion, as well as growth inhibition and thus, a potential reduction of metabolizable energy. These inhibitors stimulate the pancreas to synthesize larger amounts of chymotrypsin and trypsin; then a feedback mechanism (feed-back) is involved. The traditional culinary treatments (soaking, cooking or under pressure cooking) lead to a significant reduction in activity due to their thermolabile character. However, recent studies associate the presence of protease inhibitors with the ability to prevent or inhibit certain tumor pathologies, with certain anti-inflammatory activities or with the reduction of the severity of degenerative and autoimmune diseases.47  In addition, data have shown their potential in the treatment and/or the prevention of obesity and hypertension. In relation to lectins, they are a heterogeneous group of glycoproteins capable of reversibly binding to sugar residues of glycoproteins located on the cell surface of the entire digestive tract (stomach, small and large intestine). The consequences depend on the organ in question, thus, hyperplasia of the small intestine, hypertrophy of the colon can result. In addition, lectins can act as antitumor agents that induce programmed cell death by apoptosis and autophagic pathways.48 

Phytosterols are present in legumes (up to 53 mg/100 g in lupins) and their profile depends on the variety of legumes. β-Sitosterol is the main phytosterol followed by campesterol and D5-avenasterol. These plant secondary metabolites exhibit potential effects on obesity, atherosclerosis and also reduce serum total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and cause a significant increase in high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C).49  It has been observed in the intestinal lumen that the phytosterols compete with cholesterol in micelle formation, inhibiting its absorption. Phytosterols may regulate genes involved in the metabolism of cholesterol in mouse liver but not intestine.50 

Saponins are widely distributed in all legumes, they are mainly found in lupins, lentils, chickpeas, soybeans, beans, and peas.50  These secondary metabolites are a complex group of compounds, which contain a carbohydrate moiety attached to a triterpenoid or steroid, with several health-promoting effects. Saponins may influence the immune system to decrease the risks of cancers. In addition, literature has been found related to the lipidemic action of saponins.50,51  Most studies suggest that they may reduce blood lipids, due to the formation of an insoluble complex with cholesterol, thus avoiding its absorption in the intestine. During processing, saponins may be dissolved in water and lost in the soaking, washing, and blanching supernatants. It is necessary to find in the food industry a technology of thermal processing that helps to improve the quality of legumes while maintaining the levels of saponins.51 

With regard to alkaloids, they are mainly found in lupins, but also in peas, with very low contents in chickpeas and lentils.50  Several biological activities may attribute to these compounds at very low levels to avoid any side effects based on the neurotoxicity of alkaloids. Recently, Wiedemann et al., (2015) have found the enhancement of insulin secretion by the lupanine (lupin quinolizidine alkaloid), which potentiates glucose-stimulated insulin release by directly affecting the ATP-dependent K+ channel.52  These findings showed increases in insulin gene expression (Ins-1 gene) and also in glucose tolerance in induced hyperglycemic rats. Therefore lupanine may be of relevance for supportive treatment of diabetes mellitus.

The aim of this section is to highlight the associated health benefits of legumes, which have received rising interest from researchers. The consumption of legumes, alone or combined with other legumes, has been documented with the prevention and management of diabetes, the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer.53  It has been demonstrated that the physiological effects of legumes are different as a result of their chemical composition, in particular, the contents of polysaccharides (mainly, starch and dietary fiber fractions), proteins and bioactive compounds. Recently, Li et al., (2017) conducted a meta-analysis of a prospective cohort study to assess the association between legume consumption and risk of CVD mortality and all-cause mortality.54  The results obtained showed that a high consumption of legumes is associated with a lower risk of mortality from all causes. In addition, these results do not support an increase in the risk of mortality due to CVD in that population that habitually consumes legumes.54 

Numerous studies have associated the consumption of plant foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and legumes with lower risks of insulin resistance and diabetes in either normal or diabetic individuals.55  The chemical composition of legumes plays an essential role in energy regulation and weight control.56  The metabolic syndrome may be ameliorated by the soybean intake, which leads to an improvement of lipid metabolism. There is evidence that the prevention and treatment of diabetes in humans might be attributed to legumes (lentils and chickpeas).53–55  As stated before, legumes contain complex carbohydrates and starch resistant to digestive enzymes, which make them less digestible and their intestinal absorption as simple carbohydrates is slower.53  Legumes might be recognized as a useful management tool for sugar levels in the blood, especially in diabetic individuals. It is well known that the consumption of legumes decreases the glycemic index. In vitro studies have showed that the peptides from the protein hydrolysis of 15 bean varieties exhibited biological activity which might help modulate hypertension and type II diabetes.57,58 

There is still a scarcity of consistent studies indicating that legumes might protect against type 2 diabetes. The recent European study of the prevention with Mediterranean Diet (PREDIMED) evaluated the incidence of type 2 diabetes and the consumption of lentils, chickpeas, beans and peas in more than 3300 individuals without type 2 diabetes.7  The conclusive results indicated that the consumption of a greater proportion of legumes, particularly lentils, had beneficial effects on the prevention of type 2 diabetes in those individuals with high cardiovascular risk.59  Recently, the American Diabetes Association has recommended different nutrition strategies for the treatment of adults with type 2 diabetes, including many legume-eating patterns that are acceptable for diabetics.

To date, studies have demonstrated that legume intake has a positive effect on cardiovascular risk, decreasing the blood levels of triacylglycerides, TC, LDL-C and increasing levels of HDL-C. It is necessary to point out that all the results obtained are highly dependent of the number of legume-servings consumed, the duration of the studies (from weeks to years) as well as the type of legume consumed. All these factors seem to be decisive in decreasing of cholesterol (TC, LDL-C) levels.

Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown positive effects of the consumption of beans in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease.53,60–63  This effect may be attributed to the high content of soluble fiber that reduces blood levels of triglycerides and cholesterol.64  In this sense, a recent clinical assay suggests that black beans may also decrease cardiovascular risk by reducing inflammation.65  The dietary fiber levels and properties of antioxidant capacity of the black beans might explain these findings. In addition, inflammatory biomarkers have been inversely correlated with legume intake, the low glycemic index of legumes being the possible mechanism involved in the modulation of the inflammation process. Clemente and Olías1  have reported the potential role of resistant carbohydrates (dietary fiber, resistant starch and oligosaccharides) in intestinal microbiota modulation, motility, glucose homeostasis and cholesterolemia.

Because legumes are rich in potassium, magnesium, and dietary fiber they have a positive impact on blood pressure management. Researchers have found, in eight trials involving >500 people, half of whom were overweight or obese, reductions in blood pressure in subjects that had eaten legumes. Both systolic and mean arterial blood pressure were significantly reduced in individuals who consumed slightly less than 1 cup of legumes each day for 10 weeks.66  Interestingly, Venn et al.67  found decreases in blood pressure and triglyceride levels in addition to the reductions in waist circumference in 113 obese subjects when they consumed two servings of legumes and four servings of whole grains per day for 18 months in place of refined carbohydrate foods.

Legumes contain a wide range of bioactive compounds that, either themselves or their metabolites produced after fermentation by the intestinal microbiota, exhibit anticancer properties.68  In epidemiological studies, legumes have been associated with a lower risk of colorectal, prostate, stomach and even pancreatic cancer.53,69,70  There are several prospective cohort studies in relation to the effect of legumes on different type of cancers; however, the results are still inconsistent.

Regarding the incidence of prostate cancer, studies have indicated an inverse association between risk of prostate cancer and legume intake,71,72  while the studies of Kirsh et al.73  do not seem to corroborate it. However, recently a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies published to date shows that the risk of prostate cancer was reduced by 3.7% if individuals ingested 20 g per day of legumes. Therefore, these results seem to suggest that low incidence of prostate cancer might be associated with a high level of legumes, although the bioactive compounds and metabolic mechanisms involved are still unknown.

One of the main bioactive compounds that exhibit higher anticancer activity are the flavonoids, especially isoflavones (see Chapters 3 and 15). The ability of flavonoids to form complexes with metal ions plays an important role in their antioxidant activity. There is a specific relationship between their chemical structures and their antioxidant activity.74  Flavonoids in legumes not only inhibit tumor cell growth, but also induce cellular differentiation. The dietary fiber of legumes would not only promote a good intestinal functioning, thanks to the colonic fermentation products from the non-digestible polysaccharide fraction, but it would also provide a protective effect on the proliferation of cancer cells.75  This health-promoting benefit results from the short chains fatty acid production, such as butyrate, which inhibits growth, induces apoptosis and also, promotes differentiation in colon rectal cancer. Dietary fiber, resistant starch and α-galactosides are modulators of intestinal microbiota and motility, glucose homeostasis and cholesterolemia. However, further studies with a larger sample size are needed to corroborate these results. In addition, researchers suggested that other legume components such as vitamin E, vitamin B6, and minerals such as selenium inhibit carcinogenesis of the colon at an early stage.76  Recent studies suggest that the protective effect might also be related to the action of peptides in common bean fractions, which can inhibit, in vitro, the cellular proliferation of human colorectal cancer cells.77  Additionally, legume lectins have exhibited anticancer activity because they have the ability to recognize and bind to specific glycoconjugates, which are present in tumor cells. Literature has described the mechanisms involved, which depend on the type of tumor cell and lectin content.78  Therefore, there is an evident interest in legume lectins as a promising anticancer treatment.

Given the above, it is considered that the role of legumes in the prevention and management of chronic diseases such as metabolic syndrome, obesity, cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal health and cancer have been documented. There is solid evidence suggest an outstanding association between diets rich in legumes and a lower risk of suffering numerous cancers. Thus, the incidence of cancer could be reduced by changing the diet pattern.

This overview has documented the potential health-promoting benefits associated with legume intake. These effects derive mainly from the concentrations and properties of starch, proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds in legumes. Resistant carbohydrates (dietary fiber, resistant starch and oligosaccharides) contribute to gastrointestinal function, they exert beneficial prebiotic effects in the large intestine. On the other hand, their hydrolyzed proteins may produce peptides with biological activities and their contents of minerals and vitamins may contribute to the prevention of deficiency-related diseases. The presence of bioactive compounds in legumes seems to play a relevant role in the cardiometabolic risk prevention. Legumes need to be processed before their consumption and as a consequence, their nutritional value is improved. Nowadays, there is increasing interest and research activity in legumes because they are an ideal element to include in the human diet. Therefore, legumes have gained attention for incorporation in the formulation of functional foods. This strategy will help towards increasing legume consumption and improving human diet throughout the world. The possible effects associated with legume intake might be considered as a management tool to resolve the global problem of obesity and chronic malnutrition. Certainly, legumes are essential to eradicate hunger in the world, consolidate healthy eating habits, and protect the environment as mandated by FAO-UN. The time for nutritious food is now.

1.
Clemente
A.
,
Olias
R.
,
Curr. Opin. Food Sci.
,
2017
, vol.
14
pg.
32
2.
Giugliano
D.
,
Ceriello
A.
,
Esposito
K.
,
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.
,
2006
, vol.
48
pg.
677
3.
Tortosa
A.
,
Bes-Rastrollo
M.
,
Sanchez-Villegas
A.
,
Basterra-Gortari
F. J.
,
Nuñez-Cordoba
J. M.
,
Martinez-Gonzalez
M. A.
,
Diabetes Care
,
2007
, vol.
30
pg.
2957
4.
Razquin
C.
,
Martinez
J. A.
,
Martinez-Gonzalez
M. A.
,
Mitjavila
M. T.
,
Estruch
R.
,
Marti
A.
,
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.
,
2009
, vol.
63
pg.
1387
5.
Bazzano
L. A.
,
Thompson
A. M.
,
Tees
C. H.
,
Nguyen
M. T.
,
Winham
D. M.
,
Nutr., Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis.
,
2011
, vol.
21
pg.
94
6.
Aguilera
Y.
,
Dueñas
M.
,
Estrella
I.
,
Hernández
T.
,
Benitez
V.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
J. Agric. Food Chem.
,
2010
, vol.
58
pg.
10101
7.
Becerra-Tomás
N.
,
Díaz-López
A.
,
Rosique-Esteban
N.
,
Ros
E.
,
Buil-Cosiales
P.
,
Corella
D.
,
Estruch
R.
,
Fitó
M.
,
Serra-Majem
L.
,
Arós
F.
,
Lamuela-Raventós
R. M.
,
Fiol
M.
,
Santos-Lozano
J. M.
,
Díez-Espino
J.
,
Portoles
O.
,
Salas-Salvadó
J.
,
Clin. Nutr.
,
2018
, vol.
37
pg.
906
8.
Reckling
M.
,
Bergkvist
G.
,
Watson
C. A.
,
Stoddard
F. L.
,
Zander
P. M.
,
Walker
R. L.
,
Pristeri
A.
,
Toncea
I.
,
Bachinger
J.
,
Front. Plant Sci.
,
2016
, vol.
7
pg.
669
9.
D.
Murphy-Bokern
,
F.
Stoddard
and
C.
Watson
, in
Legumes in Cropping Systems
, ed. D. Murphy-Bokern, F. Stoddard and C. Watson,
CABI International
,
Wallingford
,
2017
, pp. 1–256
10.
http://www.fao.org/, last accessed June 2018
11.
Singh
B.
,
Singh
J. P.
,
Kaurb
A.
,
Singh
N.
,
Food Res. Int.
,
2017
, vol.
101
pg.
1
12.
Schultze-Kraft
R.
,
Rao
I. M.
,
Peters
M.
,
Clements
R. J.
,
Bai
C.
,
Liu
G.
,
Trop. Grasslands
,
2018
, vol.
16
pg.
1
13.
Farooq
M.
,
Gogoi
N.
,
Hussain
M.
,
Barthakur
S. P.
,
Bharadwaj
N.
,
Migdadi
H. M.
,
Alghamdi
S. S.
,
Siddique
K. H. M.
,
Plant Physiol. Biochem.
,
2017
, vol.
118
pg.
199
14.
UNICEF/WHO/World Bank in Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition
,
United Nations Children's Fund, the World Health Organization and World Bank Group
,
Washington DC
,
2018
, pp. 1–16
15.
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO
, in
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security
,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
,
Rome
,
2017
, pp. 1–132
16.
Vasileska
A.
,
Rechkoska
G.
,
Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci.
,
2012
, vol.
44
pg.
363
17.
Bressani
R.
,
Navarrete
D.
,
Elías
L.
,
Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.
,
1984
, vol.
34
pg.
109
18.
Boye
J.
,
Zareb
F.
,
Pletch
A.
,
Food Res. Int.
,
2010
, vol.
43
pg.
414
19.
Erbersdobler
H. F.
,
Barth
C. A.
,
Jahreis
G.
,
Sci. Res.
,
2017
, vol.
64
pg.
134
20.
Otles
S.
,
Ozgoz
S.
,
Acta Sci. Pol., Technol. Aliment.
,
2014
, vol.
13
pg.
191
21.
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
Ariza
N.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
Mollá
E.
,
Waldron
K.
,
López-Andréu
F. J.
,
J. Agric. Food Chem.
,
2003
, vol.
51
pg.
1254
22.
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
Sanfiz
B.
,
Vidal
A.
,
Mollá
E.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
López-Andréu
F. J.
,
J. Agric. Food Chem.
,
2004
, vol.
52
pg.
261
23.
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
Aguilera
A.
,
Benitez
V.
,
Mollá
E.
,
López-Andréu
F. J.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
J. Agric. Food Chem.
,
2006
, vol.
54
pg.
7652
24.
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
Díaz
M. F.
,
Aguilera
A.
,
Benitez
V.
,
Mollá
E.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
Food Chem.
,
2008
, vol.
107
pg.
1045
25.
Aguilera
A.
,
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
Benitez
V.
,
Mollá
E.
,
López-Andréu
F. J.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
J. Food Compos. Anal.
,
2009
, vol.
22
pg.
678
26.
Aguilera
A.
,
Esteban
R. M.
,
Benitez
V.
,
Mollá
E.
,
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
J. Agric. Food Chem.
,
2009
, vol.
57
pg.
10682
27.
Reverri
E. J.
,
Randolph
J. M.
,
Steinberg
F. M.
,
Kappagoda
C. T.
,
Edirinsinghe
I.
,
Burton-Freeman
B. M.
,
Nutrients
,
2015
, vol.
7
pg.
6139
28.
Caprioli
G.
,
Giusti
F.
,
Ballini
R.
,
Sagratini
G.
,
Vila-Donat
P.
,
Vittori
S.
,
Fiorini
D.
,
Food Chem.
,
2016
, vol.
192
pg.
965
29.
S. R.
Drago
, in
Nutraceutical and Functional Food Components
, ed. C. M. Galanakis,
Elsevier
,
2017
, pp. 129–157
30.
Kumar
S.
,
Verma
A. K.
,
Das
M.
,
Jain
S. K.
,
Dwivedi
P. D.
,
Nutrition
,
2013
, vol.
29
pg.
821
31.
Gernand
A. D.
,
Schulze
K. J.
,
Stewart
C. P.
,
West
K. P.
,
Christian
P.
,
Nat. Rev. Endocrinol.
,
2016
, vol.
12
pg.
274
32.
Moriyama
M.
,
Oba
K.
,
J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol.
,
2008
, vol.
54
pg.
1
33.
Shohag
M. J.
,
Wei
Y.
,
Yang
X.
,
J. Agric. Food Chem.
,
2012
, vol.
60
pg.
9137
34.
Amarowicz
R.
,
Pegg
R. B.
,
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.
,
2009
, vol.
111
pg.
1053
35.
Amarowicz
R.
,
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.
,
2007
, vol.
109
pg.
549
36.
Xu
B. J.
,
Chang
S. K.
,
J. Food Sci.
,
2007
, vol.
72
pg.
159
37.
Golam Masum Akond
A. S. M.
,
Khandaker
L.
,
Berthold
J.
,
Gates
L.
,
Peters
K.
,
Delong
H.
,
Hossain
K.
,
J. Food Technol.
,
2011
, vol.
6
pg.
385
38.
Hayat
I.
,
Ahmad
A.
,
Masud
T.
,
Ahmed
A.
,
Bashir
S.
,
Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.
,
2014
, vol.
54
pg.
580
39.
Vaz Patto
M. C.
,
Amarowicz
R.
,
Aryee
A. N. A.
,
Boye
J. I.
,
Chung
H.-J.
,
Martín-Cabrejas
M. A.
,
Domoney
C.
,
J. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci.
,
2015
, vol.
34
pg.
105
40.
Da Silva
F. L.
,
Guimaraes
V. M.
,
de Barros
E. G.
,
Moreira
M. A.
,
Dos Santos Dias
L. A.
,
de Almeida Oliveira
M. G.
,
Jose
I. C.
,
Rezende
S. T.
,
Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.
,
2006
, vol.
61
pg.
87
41.
Queiroz-Kda
S.
,
de Oliveira
A. C.
,
Helbig
E.
,
Reis
S. M.
,
Carraro
F.
,
J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol.
,
2002
, vol.
48
pg.
283
42.
Kumar
S.
,
Verma
A. K.
,
Das
M.
,
Jain
S. K.
,
Dwivedi
P. D.
,
Nutrition
,
2013
, vol.
29
pg.
821
43.
Van den Ende
W.
,
Front. Plant Sci.
,
2013
, vol.
4
pg.
247
44.
A.
Pusztai
,
S.
Bardocz
and
M. A.
Martín-Cabrejas
, in
Recent Advances of Research in Antinutritional Factors in Legume Sedes and Oilseeds
,
2004
, p. 87
45.
Zhang
Z.
,
Song
Y.
,
Wang
X.-L.
,
World J. Gastroenterol.
,
2005
, vol.
11
pg.
5044
46.
Clemente
A.
,
Sonnante
G.
,
Domoney
C.
,
Curr. Protein Pept. Sci.
,
2011
, vol.
12
pg.
358
47.
A.
Rostami
and
A. R.
Kennedy
, Jp Pat. 6767564,
2004
48.
Fu
L. L.
,
Zhou
C. C.
,
Yao
S.
,
Yu
J. Y.
,
Liu
B.
,
Bao
J. K.
,
Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.
,
2011
, vol.
43
pg.
1442
49.
R.
Sultana
,
R. S.
Singh
,
P.
Ratnakumar
,
N.
Verma
,
S. K.
Chaturvedi
,
A. K.
Chaudhary
,
C. V.
Sameer
and
M. W.
Siddiqui
, in
Plant Secondary Metabolites
, ed. M. W. Siddiqui and K. Prasad,
Apple Academic Press
,
Oakville
,
2017
,
vol. 1
7
, p. 215
50.
Jesch
E. D.
,
Lee
J. Y.
,
Carr
T. P.
,
FASEB J.
,
2008
, vol.
22
pg.
700
51.
Shi
J.
,
Arunasalam
K.
,
Yeung
D.
,
Kakuda
Y.
,
Mittal
G.
,
Jiang
Y.
,
J. Med. Food
,
2004
, vol.
7
pg.
67
52.
Wiedemann
M.
,
Gurrola-Díaz
C. M.
,
Vargas-Guerrero
B.
,
Wink
M.
,
García-López
P. M.
,
Düfer
M.
,
Molecules
,
2015
, vol.
20
pg.
19085
53.
Messina
V.
,
Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
,
2014
, vol.
100
pg.
437s
54.
Li
H.
,
Li
J.
,
Shen
Y.
,
Wang
J.
,
Zhou
D.
,
BioMed Res. Int.
,
2017
, vol.
1
pg.
20
55.
Villegas
R.
,
Gao
Y. T.
,
Yang
G.
,
Li
H. L.
,
Elasy
T. A.
,
Zheng
W.
,
Shu
X. O.
,
Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
,
2008
, vol.
87
pg.
162
56.
Acheson
K. J.
,
Nutrition
,
2010
, vol.
26
pg.
141
57.
Hutchins
A. M.
,
Winham
D. M.
,
Thompson
S. V.
,
Br. J. Nutr.
,
2012
, vol.
108
pg.
52
58.
Mojica
L.
,
de Mejía
E.
,
Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.
,
2015
, vol.
70
pg.
105
59.
Salas-Salvadó
J.
,
Bulló
M.
,
Babio
N.
,
Martínez-González
M. A.
,
Ibarrola-Jurado
N.
,
Basora
J.
,
Estruch
R.
,
Covas
M. I.
,
Corella
D.
,
Arós
F.
,
Ruiz-Gutiérrez
V.
,
Ros
E.
,
Diabetes Care
,
2011
, vol.
34
pg.
14
60.
Bazzano
L. A.
,
He
J.
,
Ogden
L. G.
,
Loria
C.
,
Vupputuri
S.
,
Myers
L.
,
Whelton
P. K.
,
Arch. Intern. Med.
,
2001
, vol.
161
pg.
2573
61.
Ha
V.
,
Sievenpiper
J. L.
,
de Souza
R. J.
,
Jayalath
V. H.
,
Mirrahimi
A.
,
Agarwal
A.
,
Chiavaroli
L.
,
Mejia
S. B.
,
Sacks
F. M.
,
Di Buono
M.
,
Bernstein
A. M.
,
Leiter
L. A.
,
Kris-Etherton
P. M.
,
Vuksan
V.
,
Bazinet
R. P.
,
Josse
R. G.
,
Beyene
J.
,
Kendall
C. W.
,
Jenkins
D. J.
,
Can. Med. Assoc. J.
,
2014
, vol.
186
pg.
252
62.
Winham
D. M.
,
Hutchins
A. M.
,
Johnston
C. S.
,
J. Am. Coll. Nutr.
,
2007
, vol.
26
pg.
243
63.
Bazzano
L. A.
,
Thompson
A. M.
,
Tees
M. T.
,
Nguyen
C. H.
,
Winham
D. M.
,
Nutr., Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis.
,
2011
, vol.
21
pg.
94
64.
Hosseinpour-Niazi
S.
,
Mirmiran
P.
,
Hedayati
M.
,
Azizi
F.
,
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.
,
2015
, vol.
69
pg.
592
65.
Reverri
E. J.
,
Randolph
J. M.
,
Steinberg
F. M.
,
Kappagoda
C. T.
,
Edirinsinghe
I.
,
Burton-Freeman
B. M.
,
Nutrients
,
2015
, vol.
7
pg.
6139
66.
Jayalath
V. H.
,
de Souza
R. J.
,
Sievenpiper
J. L.
,
Ha
V.
,
Chiavaroli
L.
,
Mirrahimi
A.
,
Di Buono
M.
,
Bernstein
A. M.
,
Leiter
L. A.
,
Kris-Etherton
P. M.
,
Vuksan
V.
,
Beyene
J.
,
Kendall
C. W.
,
Jenkins
D. J.
,
Am. J. Hypertens.
,
2014
, vol.
27
pg.
56
67.
Venn
B. J.
,
Perry
T.
,
Green
T. J.
,
Skeaff
C. M.
,
Aitken
W.
,
Moore
N. J.
,
Mann
J. I.
,
Wallace
A. J.
,
Monro
J.
,
Bradshaw
A.
,
Brown
R. C.
,
Skidmore
P. M.
,
Doel
K.
,
O'Brien
K.
,
Frampton
C.
,
Williams
S.
,
J. Am. Coll. Nutr.
,
2010
, vol.
29
pg.
365
68.
Sanchez-Chino
X.
,
Jiménez-Martínez
C.
,
Dávila-Ortiz
G.
,
Alvarez-Gonzalez
I.
,
Madrigal-Bujaidar
E.
,
Nutr. Cancer
,
2015
, vol.
67
pg.
401
69.
Wang
Y.
,
Wang
Z.
,
Fu
L.
,
Chen
Y.
,
Fang
J.
,
PLoS One
,
2013
, vol.
8
pg.
e67335
70.
Zhu
B.
,
Sun
Y.
,
Qi
L.
,
Zhong
R.
,
Miao
X.
,
Sci. Rep.
,
2015
, vol.
5
pg.
8797
71.
Diallo
A.
,
Deschasaux
M.
,
Galan
P.
,
Hercberg
S.
,
Zelek
L.
,
Latino-Martel
P.
,
Touvier
M.
,
Br. J. Nutr.
,
2016
, vol.
15
pg.
1579
72.
Schuurman
A. G.
,
Goldbohm
R. A.
,
Dorant
E.
,
van den Brandt
P. A.
,
Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev.
,
1998
, vol.
7
pg.
673
73.
Kirsh
V. A.
,
Peters
U.
,
Mayne
S. T.
,
Subar
A. F.
,
Chatterjee
N.
,
Johnson
C. C.
,
Hayes
R. B.
,
J. Natl. Cancer Inst.
,
2007
, vol.
99
pg.
1200
74.
Cao
G.
,
Sofic
E.
,
Prior
R. L.
,
Free Radical Biol. Med.
,
1997
, vol.
22
pg.
749
75.
Cruz-Bravo
R. K.
,
Guevara-González
R. G.
,
Ramos-Gómez
M.
,
Oomah
B. D.
,
Wiersma
A.
,
Campos-Vega
R.
,
Loarca-Piña
G.
,
Genes Nutr.
,
2014
, vol.
9
pg.
359
76.
Feregrino-Perez
A. A.
,
Pinol-Felis
C.
,
Gomez-Arbones
X.
,
Guevara-Gonzalez
R. G.
,
Campos-Vega
R.
,
Acosta-Gallegos
J.
,
Loarca-Piña
G.
,
Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.
,
2014
, vol.
69
pg.
248
77.
Luna-Vital
G.
,
Gonzalez de Mejía
D. A.
,
Dia
E.
,
Loarca-Piña
G.
,
Food Chem.
,
2014
, vol.
15
pg.
157
78.
Yau
T.
,
Dan
X.
,
Ng
C. C. W.
,
Ng
T. B.
,
Molecules
,
2015
, vol.
20
pg.
3791
Close Modal

or Create an Account

Close Modal
Close Modal