Chapter 2: Batteries

This chapter highlights Li-ion batteries and the critical materials that are used in them. Sources of lithium are described and these are mainly in the ‘lithium triangle’ in the Atacama Desert and in Western Australia. Extraction of lithium either from brines in the ‘Lithium Triangle’ or from hard rock, in particular spodumene in Australia are described. The refining of minerals in China are stressed. Sources of other critical materials, essential for Li-ion batteries are described. Thus, cobalt, graphite, manganese and nickel. Emphasis in the chapter is placed on supply chains and geopolitical issues such as the security of supplies. Possible seabed mining of minerals is discussed, as is the use of cyanobacteria for adsorption of critical materials. Other battery types are discussed: nickel–metal hydride batteries, lithium batteries, lithium–air batteries and vanadium flow cells. Different types of fuel cell are described along with a description of electrocatalysis.