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Culinary herbs and spices are so much more than flavour enhancing foods that provide a diverse range of distinct aromas to savory and sweet dishes. With a focus on thirty globally common culinary herbs and spices – allspice, basil, bay leaf, black pepper, caraway, cardamom, chives, cinnamon, clove, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, fenugreek, ginger, lemongrass, mint, nutmeg, oregano, paprika, parsley, rosemary, saffron, sage, star anise, sumac, sweet marjoram, tarragon, thyme and turmeric - the aim of the book is to provide an in-depth guide for a diverse set of readers on these culinary herbs and spices. Each chapter provides the names, both common and botanical, of each culinary herb or spice, a brief taxonomy and description, information concerning adulteration, region/s of origin, their journey from region to region via the spice trade, and the development of cultivars as a result of these journeys. Each chapter then delves into the historical, traditional, culinary and medicinal uses of each culinary herb or spice – both past and present. The major nutritional and phytochemical constituents of each culinary herb or spice are provided, as well as their bioactive properties, purported health benefits and therapeutic potential based on current and emerging research. The final section of each chapter is on safety and adverse effects.

There is no globally established or agreed definition for culinary herbs and spices. In some literature. Herbs and spices are separate and distinct foods and their definition is based on the part of the plant of origin from which they are sourced. In other literature, the words ‘herb’ and ‘spice’ are used interchangeably because there are similarities between them. For the purposes of this book, the following definitions are used in acknowledgement of the key differences between the foods:

“Herbs are obtained from the leaves of herbaceous (non-woody) plants.”

“Spices are obtained from roots, flowers, fruits, seeds or bark. They (spices) are native to warm tropical climates and can be woody or herbaceous plants”.1 

When one talks about culinary herbs and spices, it is likely that the conversation focuses on their diverse range of distinct and strong aromas – from the sharp pine-like with a hint of lemon of rosemary to the earthy mild pungency of black pepper; what they look like – the solid and sturdy root that is ginger and the feathery, almost ethereal, appearance of dill; the forms in which they are purchased – fresh and dried; or their use in meats, curries, casseroles, stews, soups, desserts, and cakes to enhance flavour.

These foods are unique in a culinary context because, as stated above, they possess a range of aromas, which are due to the abundance of certain chemical compounds in them – many of which are volatile2  – and as a consequence they are used as flavour enhancers. However, unlike other foods in one's diet, they are used and consumed in relatively small amounts; a factor that for many years led to the underestimation of their nutritional contribution.3–5  Furthermore, the levels of habitual use and thus consumption are dependent on a range of factors3,4,6,7  that include personal choice, appetite, the type of food or dish to be flavoured and how it (the food or dish) is to be prepared, the number of recipes, in which the amounts of culinary herbs and spices added to a food or dish vary, and also the portion size. Thus, the amount used and consumed can vary considerably from day to day for one person, between individuals, and between recipes for the same meal or dish. Predictably, due their culinary use, which forms an important part of their history of use, the amounts consumed from region to region also vary, with estimated intake levels ranging from 0.5 g per day for Europeans to 1.3–1.9 g per day for Australians and New Zealanders to 1.8 g per day in parts of Africa. Moderate intakes are reported for the Middle East and Eastern Asia (2.6 g per person and 3.1 g per person, respectively) and in India, South Africa and Latin America the average intake is reported to be approximately 4.4 g per day.8,9 

However, these foods are so much more than their culinary properties. History – which is not limited to that of Western countries, introduced to culinary herbs and spices relatively late,10–12  but also encompasses the pasts of African, Asian, Central and South American countries – suggests that their earliest use by hunter and gatherers to wrap meat led to the accidental discovery that culinary herbs and spices enhanced the taste of food.10,13  Their history also reveals that their use was, and is, steeped in folklore and that they were used for their health promoting effects by ancient civilizations long before modern day science's focus on these foods for their bioactive properties. For example, the use of culinary herbs and spices to ease digestion and treat digestive disorders dates back to the time of Hippocrates in Ancient Greece and the first and second century in the practice of Ayurvedic medicine in India.10,13  The history of culinary herbs and spices is a global one, with records of their use in other ancient civilizations, including those of China, Egypt, Rome and Arabia (the pre-Islamic era, as early as 5000 Before the Common Era (BCE) in Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq) in which the use of culinary herbs and spices was influenced by the ancient Greek physician Galen and also the practice of the ancient Romans).10,13  The international trade of these foods, which is said to date back thousands of years (4500–1900 BCE) to trade between Mesopotamia and Ethiopia, resulted in establishing and influencing the use of culinary herbs and spices in Africa, Asia and Europe.10,13 

Relatively recent research has now added to the long history of these foods. The last two decades have revealed an array of properties conferred via secondary compounds that are bioactive phytochemicals – many of which are alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids and terpenoids and possess, amongst others, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-cancer activities. Based on a growing amount of evidence, many of these culinary herbs and spices are purported to be of benefit in the maintenance of health and the prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases including type 2 diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and chronic inflammation, which now gives their daily/habitual/routine use a whole new meaning.5,14  Commentaries and information about these foods now extend beyond their culinary use. Not only have they led to position papers on, and research about, their use as alternatives to fat, salt and sugar to flavour food and to encourage the consumption of vegetables, but also they have led to discussions in scientific literature about the levels of consumption that might confer benefit – an area that is extremely challenging due to their subjective use – and their potential uses due to their bioactive constituents.14–16 

There is a significant amount of literature (16 800 000 results from a Google search of culinary herbs and spices carried out in October 2019) ranging from peer-reviewed literature on their chemical constituents, bioactive properties and health benefits to their culinary, dietary and medicinal uses, adverse effects, safety and adulteration –- the latter of which is a global issue with some countries reporting significant levels of foreign material such as Sudan I, II, III and IV and lead chromate pigment in commercially available culinary herbs and spice.17–19  The aim of the authors of this book is to bring together these key elements and more, by focussing on the thirty culinary herbs and spices listed, with both their common and botanical/scientific names, in the Table 1.1 below; the common names, where possible, are in both English and non-English languages so as to reflect the global use of these foods. The inclusion of some of the non-English names also highlights two facts: (1) that there are regional and dialectic differences in the names within countries; and (2) the languages are mainly European and Asian with some that are African. When it comes to Indigenous groups in Australia, New Zealand, and the Americas, although there is a paucity of information, their use for medicinal purposes is acknowledged in the literature.20  The authors acknowledge that more culinary herbs and spices than the thirty of focus in this book are used around the world. However, these thirty were consistently among the lists of the most common culinary herbs and spices provided by online resources, including Gernot Katzer's excellent Geographic Spice Index,21,22  which provides information on culinary herbs and spices worldwide and categorises them based on regions – Central and Northern Europe, the Mediterranean, West and Central Asia, South Asia, South East Asia, East Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. Other resources that included the thirty of focus here in their list of common culinary herbs and spices include the Seasoning and Spice Association, the European Spice Association, global seasonings and spice market data, and academic literature from around the world.23–26 

Table 1.1

Common, local and scientific names of the culinary herbs and spices

Common and local namesaBotanical/Scientific namesa
Allspice, Jamaican pepper, Pimenta, Newspice Pimenta dioica, Pimenta officinalis 
Arabic – bhar hub wa na'im and Bahar Halu 
Finnish – Maustepippuri, Hindi – Kebab Chini 
French – Piment 
Spanish – Pimienta de Jamaica 
Yiddish – English pevirts and Englisher fefer 
Basil, Sweet Basil, Common Basil, Thai Basil, Tropical Basil Ocimum basilicum 
Albanian – Bozilok I mermë and Borziloku 
Bengali – Tulsi 
French – Basilic 
Italian – Basilico 
Malay – Kemangi, Duan selaseh jantan 
Bay leaf Laurus nobilis 
Armenian – Tapni Derev, Dabni-I Terew, Dapni 
Dutch and French – Laurier 
German – Lorbeer 
Japanese – Gekkeiju, Roreru 
Black pepper Piper nigrum 
Bengali – Golmoris 
French – Poivre noir 
Hausa – Masoro 
German - PfefferKorean – Huchu, Pepeo, Pepo 
Spanish – Pimienta negra 
Caraway Carum carvi 
Albanian – Qimnoni 
Burmese – Ziya 
French – Cumin des pres 
Spanish – Alcaravea 
Norwegian – Karve 
Cardamom, Small Cardamom, Green Cardamom, True Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 
Armenian – Shooshmir, Shushmir and Andritak 
French – Cardamome 
Hindi – Choti 
Tamil – Elakkai 
Tibetan – Sug smel and Sugmel 
Chives Allium schoenoprasum 
French – Civette 
Gaelic – Cebolete; Spanish – Cebollino 
Spanish – Cebollin 
Vietnamese – Hanh tam, Hanh trang 
Cinnamon (Ceylon Cinnamon, True Cinnamon) Cinnamomum verum (syn Cinnamomum zeylanicum) 
Basqu – Kanela, Kanelondo; Mongolian – Shantsaj 
French – Cannelle 
Spanish – Canela 
Tigrinya (spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea) – Qerfe 
Urdu – Dar chini and Dal chini 
Other Species: Cinnamon (Chinese Cinnamon, Chinese Cassia), Cinnamon (Indonesian Cinnamon), Cinnamon (Saigon Cinnamon) Other Species: Cinnamomum cassia (syn Cinnamomum aromaticum), Cinnamomum burmanni, Cinnamomum loureiroi 
Cloves Syzygium aromaticum, Eugenia aomaticum, Eugenia caryophyllata 
Bulgarian – Karamfil 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Ding Heung 
French – Clous de girofle 
Spanish – Clavos de olor 
Welsh – Clawlys and Clof 
Coriander, Cilantro Coriander, Chinese parsley Coriandrum sativum 
Catalan – Celiàdria and Coriandre 
English – Chinese parsley (herb) and Indian parsley (herb) 
French – Coriandre 
Spanish – Cilantro 
Tagalog (spoken in the Philippines) – Kulantro, Unsuey, Wansuey and Uan-soi (herb) 
Cumin Cuminum cyminum 
Coptic – Tapen and Thapen 
Hebrew – Kamon, Kammon and Kamoon 
French – Cumin 
Spanish – Comino 
Tulu (spoken in Southwestern India) – Jirige 
Dill Anethum graveolens, Anethum foeniculum, Peucedanum graveolens, Anethum sowa 
Croatian – Kopar and Mirodija 
Korean – Tir and Inondu 
French – Aneth 
Spanish – Eneldo 
Russian – Ukrop 
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 
Czech – Fenykl, Fenýkl obecný, Vlašský kopr, Sladký kopr and Řimský kopr 
Gujarati – Varyyali 
French – Fenouil 
Spanish – Hinojo 
Swahili – Shamari 
Xhosa – Imbambosib 
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 
Albanian – Kopër Greqie, Trëndetina yzerlike, Trëndetine, Yzerlik 
Farsi – Shanbalile 
French – Fenugrec 
Spanish – Fenogreco 
Swahili – Uwatu 
Ginger Zingiber officinale 
Fante (spoken in Ghana) – Akakdur, Tsintsimir and Tsintsimin 
Ga-Dangme (spoken in Ghana and Togo) – Kakaotshofa, Odzahui 
Hausa – Chittar and Afu 
French – Gingembre 
Spanish – Jengibre 
Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon flexuosus 
Danish – Citrengras, Sereh and Kamelhewe 
Ga-Dangme – Ti-ba 
Icelandic – Sitrónugras 
French – Verveine des Indes 
Thai – Takrai, Krai 
Marjoram (sweet majoram) Origanum majorana/Majorana hortensis 
Belarusian – Majaran 
Hindi – Mirzam josh and Kuthara 
French – Marjolaine 
Spanish – Mejorana 
Turkish – Mercanköşk, Merzengûş, Kekik otu and Kekikotu 
Mint (peppermint) Mentha piperita 
Arabic – Eqama, Nana, Nana al-fulfuli 
French – Menthe anglaise, menthe poivrée, Sentebon 
Lao – Bai Hom Lap, Bai kankam, Phak hom lap, Phak kan kam and Saranae 
Spanish – Menta 
Mint (spearmint) Mentha spicata 
Mint (water mint) Mentha aquatica 
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 
Bulgarian – Indijsko orehche 
Japanese – Natumegu 
French – Noix de muscade 
Spanish – Nuez moscada 
Oregano Origanum vulgare 
English – Wild Marjoram and Oregano 
French – Oregan 
Maltese – Riegnu 
Italian – Origano 
Thai – Orikano 
Mexican oregano 
Mexican oregano/small oregano Lippia graveolens, Lippia palmeri, Hedeoma patens, Poliomintha longiflora 
Mexican oregano/rosemary mint 
Paprika Capsicum annuum, Capsicum tetragonum 
Albanian – Specë and Speci 
French – Paprika 
Hausa – Tattase 
Nepali – Bhede Khursani 
Spanish – Pimenton 
Parsley Petroselinum crispum, Petroselinum Hortense, Petroselinum sativum 
Croatian (and Serbian) – Peršin and Peršun 
French – Persil 
Polish – Pietruszka zwyczajina 
Spanish – Parejil 
Triginya – Persamelo 
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 
Dutch – Rozemarijin 
French – Romarin 
Latvian – Rozmarīns 
Spanish – Romera 
Triginya – Rozmeri 
Xhosa – Roselinerb 
Saffron Crocus sativus 
Armenian – Kerkoom and Kerkum 
French – Safran 
Swahili – Zafarani 
Urdu – Zafaron and Kisar 
Sage, Common Sage Salvia officinalis 
French – Sauge 
Portuguese – Chá-da-Europa and Salva-mansa 
Spanish – Salvia 
Punjabi – Sathi 
Star anise, Chinese Anise Illicium verum 
Estonian – Harilik tähtaniisipuu and Tähtaniis 
French – Anis étoilé 
Indonesian – Bunga lawang, Adas cina, Pe ka, Pekak, Kembang lawing 
Spanish – Anis estrellado 
Swedish – Stjärnanis 
Sumac Rhus coriaria, Rhus glabra, Rhus typhina 
Coptic – Alithriten 
French – Sumac 
Lithuanian – Žagrenis 
Spanish – Zumaque 
Telugu (spoken in the south-east of India) – Karkkararingi 
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus 
Chinese – Long Hao; Xia Ye Qing Hao 
Spanish – Dragoncilla; estragon 
French – Dragon; estragon 
Germany – Estragon 
Italy – Dragone; estragone 
Thyme Thymus vulgaris 
Albanian – Timus 
Chinese (Mandarin) – Bai li xiang 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Baak leih heung 
French – Thym 
Spanish – Tomillo 
Tigrinya – Tesna 
Xhosa – Umakhunkulab 
Turmeric Curcuma longa, Curcuma domestica 
Bodo (spoken in Northeast India, Nepal and Bengal) – Halde 
French – Safran des Indes 
Hungarian – Kurkuma, Sárga gyömbérgyökér 
Spanish – cúrcuma 
Swahili – Manjano 
Common and local namesaBotanical/Scientific namesa
Allspice, Jamaican pepper, Pimenta, Newspice Pimenta dioica, Pimenta officinalis 
Arabic – bhar hub wa na'im and Bahar Halu 
Finnish – Maustepippuri, Hindi – Kebab Chini 
French – Piment 
Spanish – Pimienta de Jamaica 
Yiddish – English pevirts and Englisher fefer 
Basil, Sweet Basil, Common Basil, Thai Basil, Tropical Basil Ocimum basilicum 
Albanian – Bozilok I mermë and Borziloku 
Bengali – Tulsi 
French – Basilic 
Italian – Basilico 
Malay – Kemangi, Duan selaseh jantan 
Bay leaf Laurus nobilis 
Armenian – Tapni Derev, Dabni-I Terew, Dapni 
Dutch and French – Laurier 
German – Lorbeer 
Japanese – Gekkeiju, Roreru 
Black pepper Piper nigrum 
Bengali – Golmoris 
French – Poivre noir 
Hausa – Masoro 
German - PfefferKorean – Huchu, Pepeo, Pepo 
Spanish – Pimienta negra 
Caraway Carum carvi 
Albanian – Qimnoni 
Burmese – Ziya 
French – Cumin des pres 
Spanish – Alcaravea 
Norwegian – Karve 
Cardamom, Small Cardamom, Green Cardamom, True Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 
Armenian – Shooshmir, Shushmir and Andritak 
French – Cardamome 
Hindi – Choti 
Tamil – Elakkai 
Tibetan – Sug smel and Sugmel 
Chives Allium schoenoprasum 
French – Civette 
Gaelic – Cebolete; Spanish – Cebollino 
Spanish – Cebollin 
Vietnamese – Hanh tam, Hanh trang 
Cinnamon (Ceylon Cinnamon, True Cinnamon) Cinnamomum verum (syn Cinnamomum zeylanicum) 
Basqu – Kanela, Kanelondo; Mongolian – Shantsaj 
French – Cannelle 
Spanish – Canela 
Tigrinya (spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea) – Qerfe 
Urdu – Dar chini and Dal chini 
Other Species: Cinnamon (Chinese Cinnamon, Chinese Cassia), Cinnamon (Indonesian Cinnamon), Cinnamon (Saigon Cinnamon) Other Species: Cinnamomum cassia (syn Cinnamomum aromaticum), Cinnamomum burmanni, Cinnamomum loureiroi 
Cloves Syzygium aromaticum, Eugenia aomaticum, Eugenia caryophyllata 
Bulgarian – Karamfil 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Ding Heung 
French – Clous de girofle 
Spanish – Clavos de olor 
Welsh – Clawlys and Clof 
Coriander, Cilantro Coriander, Chinese parsley Coriandrum sativum 
Catalan – Celiàdria and Coriandre 
English – Chinese parsley (herb) and Indian parsley (herb) 
French – Coriandre 
Spanish – Cilantro 
Tagalog (spoken in the Philippines) – Kulantro, Unsuey, Wansuey and Uan-soi (herb) 
Cumin Cuminum cyminum 
Coptic – Tapen and Thapen 
Hebrew – Kamon, Kammon and Kamoon 
French – Cumin 
Spanish – Comino 
Tulu (spoken in Southwestern India) – Jirige 
Dill Anethum graveolens, Anethum foeniculum, Peucedanum graveolens, Anethum sowa 
Croatian – Kopar and Mirodija 
Korean – Tir and Inondu 
French – Aneth 
Spanish – Eneldo 
Russian – Ukrop 
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 
Czech – Fenykl, Fenýkl obecný, Vlašský kopr, Sladký kopr and Řimský kopr 
Gujarati – Varyyali 
French – Fenouil 
Spanish – Hinojo 
Swahili – Shamari 
Xhosa – Imbambosib 
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 
Albanian – Kopër Greqie, Trëndetina yzerlike, Trëndetine, Yzerlik 
Farsi – Shanbalile 
French – Fenugrec 
Spanish – Fenogreco 
Swahili – Uwatu 
Ginger Zingiber officinale 
Fante (spoken in Ghana) – Akakdur, Tsintsimir and Tsintsimin 
Ga-Dangme (spoken in Ghana and Togo) – Kakaotshofa, Odzahui 
Hausa – Chittar and Afu 
French – Gingembre 
Spanish – Jengibre 
Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon flexuosus 
Danish – Citrengras, Sereh and Kamelhewe 
Ga-Dangme – Ti-ba 
Icelandic – Sitrónugras 
French – Verveine des Indes 
Thai – Takrai, Krai 
Marjoram (sweet majoram) Origanum majorana/Majorana hortensis 
Belarusian – Majaran 
Hindi – Mirzam josh and Kuthara 
French – Marjolaine 
Spanish – Mejorana 
Turkish – Mercanköşk, Merzengûş, Kekik otu and Kekikotu 
Mint (peppermint) Mentha piperita 
Arabic – Eqama, Nana, Nana al-fulfuli 
French – Menthe anglaise, menthe poivrée, Sentebon 
Lao – Bai Hom Lap, Bai kankam, Phak hom lap, Phak kan kam and Saranae 
Spanish – Menta 
Mint (spearmint) Mentha spicata 
Mint (water mint) Mentha aquatica 
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 
Bulgarian – Indijsko orehche 
Japanese – Natumegu 
French – Noix de muscade 
Spanish – Nuez moscada 
Oregano Origanum vulgare 
English – Wild Marjoram and Oregano 
French – Oregan 
Maltese – Riegnu 
Italian – Origano 
Thai – Orikano 
Mexican oregano 
Mexican oregano/small oregano Lippia graveolens, Lippia palmeri, Hedeoma patens, Poliomintha longiflora 
Mexican oregano/rosemary mint 
Paprika Capsicum annuum, Capsicum tetragonum 
Albanian – Specë and Speci 
French – Paprika 
Hausa – Tattase 
Nepali – Bhede Khursani 
Spanish – Pimenton 
Parsley Petroselinum crispum, Petroselinum Hortense, Petroselinum sativum 
Croatian (and Serbian) – Peršin and Peršun 
French – Persil 
Polish – Pietruszka zwyczajina 
Spanish – Parejil 
Triginya – Persamelo 
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 
Dutch – Rozemarijin 
French – Romarin 
Latvian – Rozmarīns 
Spanish – Romera 
Triginya – Rozmeri 
Xhosa – Roselinerb 
Saffron Crocus sativus 
Armenian – Kerkoom and Kerkum 
French – Safran 
Swahili – Zafarani 
Urdu – Zafaron and Kisar 
Sage, Common Sage Salvia officinalis 
French – Sauge 
Portuguese – Chá-da-Europa and Salva-mansa 
Spanish – Salvia 
Punjabi – Sathi 
Star anise, Chinese Anise Illicium verum 
Estonian – Harilik tähtaniisipuu and Tähtaniis 
French – Anis étoilé 
Indonesian – Bunga lawang, Adas cina, Pe ka, Pekak, Kembang lawing 
Spanish – Anis estrellado 
Swedish – Stjärnanis 
Sumac Rhus coriaria, Rhus glabra, Rhus typhina 
Coptic – Alithriten 
French – Sumac 
Lithuanian – Žagrenis 
Spanish – Zumaque 
Telugu (spoken in the south-east of India) – Karkkararingi 
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus 
Chinese – Long Hao; Xia Ye Qing Hao 
Spanish – Dragoncilla; estragon 
French – Dragon; estragon 
Germany – Estragon 
Italy – Dragone; estragone 
Thyme Thymus vulgaris 
Albanian – Timus 
Chinese (Mandarin) – Bai li xiang 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Baak leih heung 
French – Thym 
Spanish – Tomillo 
Tigrinya – Tesna 
Xhosa – Umakhunkulab 
Turmeric Curcuma longa, Curcuma domestica 
Bodo (spoken in Northeast India, Nepal and Bengal) – Halde 
French – Safran des Indes 
Hungarian – Kurkuma, Sárga gyömbérgyökér 
Spanish – cúrcuma 
Swahili – Manjano 
a

Sources of some common and botanical names: ref. 21 and 22.

b

Source of local names: ref. 26. The authors have listed only a selection of local names, which are extensive.

The book is organised so that each culinary herb and spice has its own chapter, beginning with the chapter on allspice and ending with the chapter on turmeric. Each chapter begins with the names of the culinary herb or spice as listed in Table 1.1. A brief taxonomy and description of each culinary herb or spice are provided, as well as a list of varieties (both edible and inedible) and information concerning adulteration. The history of the culinary herb or spice, its region/s of origin and its journey from region to region via the spice trade are explored, as is the development of cultivars as a result of these journeys. Each chapter then delves into the historical uses of each culinary herb or spice and how they influenced and/or were influenced by cultural, religious and traditional beliefs and practices, and also their culinary and medicinal uses of the past and present. (The authors acknowledge that in many cases there is little distinction between these beliefs, practices and uses as they overlap, interact, and/or influence one another. For example, a medicinal use could stem from a traditional belief that is also a religious one.) The major nutritional and phytochemical constituents of each culinary herb or spice are provided, and the culinary and bioactive properties of each are explained in the context of their (the constituents') chemistry. The next section of each chapter is focused on their bioactive properties, purported health benefits and therapeutic potential based on current and emerging research. This section attempts to review and, where possible, assess the potential of each culinary herb and spice to be used as a functional food, specifically their capacity to protect against the development of, and use in the treatment of, chronic non-communicable diseases and other diseases/conditions. However, in a number of cases the assessment is limited by the paucity and/or quality of some of the research carried out. For this section, every attempt has been made to focus on work that has come from clinical trials. However, the findings from in vitro and animal studies, which in many cases have formed the basis for much of the clinical work, have also been included. The final section of each chapter is on safety and adverse effects.

The aim of the book is to provide an in-depth guide for a diverse set of readers on thirty common culinary herbs and spices. The challenge throughout has been to ensure that the book appeals to students, academics and those who work with and have a general interest in these foods. We hope we have found the right balance.

1.
Herbs vs. Spices, Horticulture and Home Pest News, Iowa State University, Extension and Outreach, https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/2003/8-22-2003/herbsnspices.html, accessed 12 November 2020
2.
Chemical Compounds in Herbs & Spices, https://www.compoundchem.com/2014/03/13/chemical-compounds-in-herbs-spices/, accessed 12 November 2020
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Wishart
 
D. S.
Genes Nutr.
2019
, vol. 
14
 pg. 
18
 
10.
McCormick Science Institute
, History of Spices, https://www.mccormickscienceinstitute.com/resources/history-of-spices, accessed 12 November 2020
11.
Gilboa
 
A.
Namdar
 
D.
Radiocarbon
2015
, vol. 
57
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265
-
283
)
12.
Haw
 
S. G.
J. Anc. Hist. Archaeol.
2017
, vol. 
4
 (pg. 
5
-
18
)
13.
Tapsell
 
L. C.
Hemphill
 
I.
Cobiac
 
L.
Sullivan
 
D. R.
Fenech
 
M.
Patch
 
C. S.
Roodenrys
 
S.
Keogh
 
J. B.
Clifton
 
P. M.
Williams
 
P. G.
Fazio
 
V. A.
Inge
 
K. E.
Med. J. Aust.
2006
, vol. 
185
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14.
Opara
 
E. I.
J. Sci. Food Agric.
2019
, vol. 
99
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4511
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4517
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15.
Hill
 
J. O.
Nutr. Today
2014
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49
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S12
 
16.
Post
 
R. C.
Nutr. Today
2014
, vol. 
49
 pg. 
S22
 
17.
Galvin-King
 
P.
Haughey
 
S. A.
Elliott
 
C. T.
Food Control
2018
, vol. 
88
 (pg. 
85
-
97
)
18.
Forsyth
 
J. E.
Nurunnahar
 
S.
Islam
 
S. S.
Baker
 
M.
Yeasmin
 
D.
Islam
 
M. S.
Rahman
 
M.
Fendorf
 
S.
Ardoin
 
N. M.
Winch
 
P. J.
Luby
 
S. P.
Environ. Res.
2019
, vol. 
179
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108722
 
19.
Food and Drink Federation
, https://www.fdf.org.uk/herbs-spices-guidance.aspx, accessed 13 November 2020
20.
Gossell-Williams
 
M.
Simon
 
O.
West
 
M. E.
West Indian Med. J.
2006
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55
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218
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21.
G.
Katzer
, Welcome to Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages, http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/index.html, accessed 12 November 2020
22.
G.
Katzer
, Geographic Spice Index, http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/spice_geo.html#top_of_index, accessed 12 November 2020
23.
The Seasoning and Spice Association
, SSA: Culinary Herbs and Spices, http://www.seasoningandspice.org.uk/ssa/background_culinary-herbs-spices.aspx, accessed 12 November 2020
24.
European Spice Association
, ESA: List ofCulinary Herbs and Spices, https://www.esa-spices.org/download/esa-list-of-culinary-herbs-and-spices.pdf, accessed 12 November 2020
25.
Grandview Research
, Global Seasonings & Spices Market Size Report, 2020–2027, https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/seasonings-spices-market, accessed 12 November 2020
26.
Asowata-Ayodele
 
A. M.
Afolayan
 
A. J.
Otunola
 
G. A.
S. Afr. J. Bot.
2016
, vol. 
104
 (pg. 
69
-
75
)

Figures & Tables

Table 1.1

Common, local and scientific names of the culinary herbs and spices

Common and local namesaBotanical/Scientific namesa
Allspice, Jamaican pepper, Pimenta, Newspice Pimenta dioica, Pimenta officinalis 
Arabic – bhar hub wa na'im and Bahar Halu 
Finnish – Maustepippuri, Hindi – Kebab Chini 
French – Piment 
Spanish – Pimienta de Jamaica 
Yiddish – English pevirts and Englisher fefer 
Basil, Sweet Basil, Common Basil, Thai Basil, Tropical Basil Ocimum basilicum 
Albanian – Bozilok I mermë and Borziloku 
Bengali – Tulsi 
French – Basilic 
Italian – Basilico 
Malay – Kemangi, Duan selaseh jantan 
Bay leaf Laurus nobilis 
Armenian – Tapni Derev, Dabni-I Terew, Dapni 
Dutch and French – Laurier 
German – Lorbeer 
Japanese – Gekkeiju, Roreru 
Black pepper Piper nigrum 
Bengali – Golmoris 
French – Poivre noir 
Hausa – Masoro 
German - PfefferKorean – Huchu, Pepeo, Pepo 
Spanish – Pimienta negra 
Caraway Carum carvi 
Albanian – Qimnoni 
Burmese – Ziya 
French – Cumin des pres 
Spanish – Alcaravea 
Norwegian – Karve 
Cardamom, Small Cardamom, Green Cardamom, True Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 
Armenian – Shooshmir, Shushmir and Andritak 
French – Cardamome 
Hindi – Choti 
Tamil – Elakkai 
Tibetan – Sug smel and Sugmel 
Chives Allium schoenoprasum 
French – Civette 
Gaelic – Cebolete; Spanish – Cebollino 
Spanish – Cebollin 
Vietnamese – Hanh tam, Hanh trang 
Cinnamon (Ceylon Cinnamon, True Cinnamon) Cinnamomum verum (syn Cinnamomum zeylanicum) 
Basqu – Kanela, Kanelondo; Mongolian – Shantsaj 
French – Cannelle 
Spanish – Canela 
Tigrinya (spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea) – Qerfe 
Urdu – Dar chini and Dal chini 
Other Species: Cinnamon (Chinese Cinnamon, Chinese Cassia), Cinnamon (Indonesian Cinnamon), Cinnamon (Saigon Cinnamon) Other Species: Cinnamomum cassia (syn Cinnamomum aromaticum), Cinnamomum burmanni, Cinnamomum loureiroi 
Cloves Syzygium aromaticum, Eugenia aomaticum, Eugenia caryophyllata 
Bulgarian – Karamfil 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Ding Heung 
French – Clous de girofle 
Spanish – Clavos de olor 
Welsh – Clawlys and Clof 
Coriander, Cilantro Coriander, Chinese parsley Coriandrum sativum 
Catalan – Celiàdria and Coriandre 
English – Chinese parsley (herb) and Indian parsley (herb) 
French – Coriandre 
Spanish – Cilantro 
Tagalog (spoken in the Philippines) – Kulantro, Unsuey, Wansuey and Uan-soi (herb) 
Cumin Cuminum cyminum 
Coptic – Tapen and Thapen 
Hebrew – Kamon, Kammon and Kamoon 
French – Cumin 
Spanish – Comino 
Tulu (spoken in Southwestern India) – Jirige 
Dill Anethum graveolens, Anethum foeniculum, Peucedanum graveolens, Anethum sowa 
Croatian – Kopar and Mirodija 
Korean – Tir and Inondu 
French – Aneth 
Spanish – Eneldo 
Russian – Ukrop 
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 
Czech – Fenykl, Fenýkl obecný, Vlašský kopr, Sladký kopr and Řimský kopr 
Gujarati – Varyyali 
French – Fenouil 
Spanish – Hinojo 
Swahili – Shamari 
Xhosa – Imbambosib 
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 
Albanian – Kopër Greqie, Trëndetina yzerlike, Trëndetine, Yzerlik 
Farsi – Shanbalile 
French – Fenugrec 
Spanish – Fenogreco 
Swahili – Uwatu 
Ginger Zingiber officinale 
Fante (spoken in Ghana) – Akakdur, Tsintsimir and Tsintsimin 
Ga-Dangme (spoken in Ghana and Togo) – Kakaotshofa, Odzahui 
Hausa – Chittar and Afu 
French – Gingembre 
Spanish – Jengibre 
Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon flexuosus 
Danish – Citrengras, Sereh and Kamelhewe 
Ga-Dangme – Ti-ba 
Icelandic – Sitrónugras 
French – Verveine des Indes 
Thai – Takrai, Krai 
Marjoram (sweet majoram) Origanum majorana/Majorana hortensis 
Belarusian – Majaran 
Hindi – Mirzam josh and Kuthara 
French – Marjolaine 
Spanish – Mejorana 
Turkish – Mercanköşk, Merzengûş, Kekik otu and Kekikotu 
Mint (peppermint) Mentha piperita 
Arabic – Eqama, Nana, Nana al-fulfuli 
French – Menthe anglaise, menthe poivrée, Sentebon 
Lao – Bai Hom Lap, Bai kankam, Phak hom lap, Phak kan kam and Saranae 
Spanish – Menta 
Mint (spearmint) Mentha spicata 
Mint (water mint) Mentha aquatica 
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 
Bulgarian – Indijsko orehche 
Japanese – Natumegu 
French – Noix de muscade 
Spanish – Nuez moscada 
Oregano Origanum vulgare 
English – Wild Marjoram and Oregano 
French – Oregan 
Maltese – Riegnu 
Italian – Origano 
Thai – Orikano 
Mexican oregano 
Mexican oregano/small oregano Lippia graveolens, Lippia palmeri, Hedeoma patens, Poliomintha longiflora 
Mexican oregano/rosemary mint 
Paprika Capsicum annuum, Capsicum tetragonum 
Albanian – Specë and Speci 
French – Paprika 
Hausa – Tattase 
Nepali – Bhede Khursani 
Spanish – Pimenton 
Parsley Petroselinum crispum, Petroselinum Hortense, Petroselinum sativum 
Croatian (and Serbian) – Peršin and Peršun 
French – Persil 
Polish – Pietruszka zwyczajina 
Spanish – Parejil 
Triginya – Persamelo 
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 
Dutch – Rozemarijin 
French – Romarin 
Latvian – Rozmarīns 
Spanish – Romera 
Triginya – Rozmeri 
Xhosa – Roselinerb 
Saffron Crocus sativus 
Armenian – Kerkoom and Kerkum 
French – Safran 
Swahili – Zafarani 
Urdu – Zafaron and Kisar 
Sage, Common Sage Salvia officinalis 
French – Sauge 
Portuguese – Chá-da-Europa and Salva-mansa 
Spanish – Salvia 
Punjabi – Sathi 
Star anise, Chinese Anise Illicium verum 
Estonian – Harilik tähtaniisipuu and Tähtaniis 
French – Anis étoilé 
Indonesian – Bunga lawang, Adas cina, Pe ka, Pekak, Kembang lawing 
Spanish – Anis estrellado 
Swedish – Stjärnanis 
Sumac Rhus coriaria, Rhus glabra, Rhus typhina 
Coptic – Alithriten 
French – Sumac 
Lithuanian – Žagrenis 
Spanish – Zumaque 
Telugu (spoken in the south-east of India) – Karkkararingi 
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus 
Chinese – Long Hao; Xia Ye Qing Hao 
Spanish – Dragoncilla; estragon 
French – Dragon; estragon 
Germany – Estragon 
Italy – Dragone; estragone 
Thyme Thymus vulgaris 
Albanian – Timus 
Chinese (Mandarin) – Bai li xiang 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Baak leih heung 
French – Thym 
Spanish – Tomillo 
Tigrinya – Tesna 
Xhosa – Umakhunkulab 
Turmeric Curcuma longa, Curcuma domestica 
Bodo (spoken in Northeast India, Nepal and Bengal) – Halde 
French – Safran des Indes 
Hungarian – Kurkuma, Sárga gyömbérgyökér 
Spanish – cúrcuma 
Swahili – Manjano 
Common and local namesaBotanical/Scientific namesa
Allspice, Jamaican pepper, Pimenta, Newspice Pimenta dioica, Pimenta officinalis 
Arabic – bhar hub wa na'im and Bahar Halu 
Finnish – Maustepippuri, Hindi – Kebab Chini 
French – Piment 
Spanish – Pimienta de Jamaica 
Yiddish – English pevirts and Englisher fefer 
Basil, Sweet Basil, Common Basil, Thai Basil, Tropical Basil Ocimum basilicum 
Albanian – Bozilok I mermë and Borziloku 
Bengali – Tulsi 
French – Basilic 
Italian – Basilico 
Malay – Kemangi, Duan selaseh jantan 
Bay leaf Laurus nobilis 
Armenian – Tapni Derev, Dabni-I Terew, Dapni 
Dutch and French – Laurier 
German – Lorbeer 
Japanese – Gekkeiju, Roreru 
Black pepper Piper nigrum 
Bengali – Golmoris 
French – Poivre noir 
Hausa – Masoro 
German - PfefferKorean – Huchu, Pepeo, Pepo 
Spanish – Pimienta negra 
Caraway Carum carvi 
Albanian – Qimnoni 
Burmese – Ziya 
French – Cumin des pres 
Spanish – Alcaravea 
Norwegian – Karve 
Cardamom, Small Cardamom, Green Cardamom, True Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 
Armenian – Shooshmir, Shushmir and Andritak 
French – Cardamome 
Hindi – Choti 
Tamil – Elakkai 
Tibetan – Sug smel and Sugmel 
Chives Allium schoenoprasum 
French – Civette 
Gaelic – Cebolete; Spanish – Cebollino 
Spanish – Cebollin 
Vietnamese – Hanh tam, Hanh trang 
Cinnamon (Ceylon Cinnamon, True Cinnamon) Cinnamomum verum (syn Cinnamomum zeylanicum) 
Basqu – Kanela, Kanelondo; Mongolian – Shantsaj 
French – Cannelle 
Spanish – Canela 
Tigrinya (spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea) – Qerfe 
Urdu – Dar chini and Dal chini 
Other Species: Cinnamon (Chinese Cinnamon, Chinese Cassia), Cinnamon (Indonesian Cinnamon), Cinnamon (Saigon Cinnamon) Other Species: Cinnamomum cassia (syn Cinnamomum aromaticum), Cinnamomum burmanni, Cinnamomum loureiroi 
Cloves Syzygium aromaticum, Eugenia aomaticum, Eugenia caryophyllata 
Bulgarian – Karamfil 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Ding Heung 
French – Clous de girofle 
Spanish – Clavos de olor 
Welsh – Clawlys and Clof 
Coriander, Cilantro Coriander, Chinese parsley Coriandrum sativum 
Catalan – Celiàdria and Coriandre 
English – Chinese parsley (herb) and Indian parsley (herb) 
French – Coriandre 
Spanish – Cilantro 
Tagalog (spoken in the Philippines) – Kulantro, Unsuey, Wansuey and Uan-soi (herb) 
Cumin Cuminum cyminum 
Coptic – Tapen and Thapen 
Hebrew – Kamon, Kammon and Kamoon 
French – Cumin 
Spanish – Comino 
Tulu (spoken in Southwestern India) – Jirige 
Dill Anethum graveolens, Anethum foeniculum, Peucedanum graveolens, Anethum sowa 
Croatian – Kopar and Mirodija 
Korean – Tir and Inondu 
French – Aneth 
Spanish – Eneldo 
Russian – Ukrop 
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 
Czech – Fenykl, Fenýkl obecný, Vlašský kopr, Sladký kopr and Řimský kopr 
Gujarati – Varyyali 
French – Fenouil 
Spanish – Hinojo 
Swahili – Shamari 
Xhosa – Imbambosib 
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 
Albanian – Kopër Greqie, Trëndetina yzerlike, Trëndetine, Yzerlik 
Farsi – Shanbalile 
French – Fenugrec 
Spanish – Fenogreco 
Swahili – Uwatu 
Ginger Zingiber officinale 
Fante (spoken in Ghana) – Akakdur, Tsintsimir and Tsintsimin 
Ga-Dangme (spoken in Ghana and Togo) – Kakaotshofa, Odzahui 
Hausa – Chittar and Afu 
French – Gingembre 
Spanish – Jengibre 
Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon flexuosus 
Danish – Citrengras, Sereh and Kamelhewe 
Ga-Dangme – Ti-ba 
Icelandic – Sitrónugras 
French – Verveine des Indes 
Thai – Takrai, Krai 
Marjoram (sweet majoram) Origanum majorana/Majorana hortensis 
Belarusian – Majaran 
Hindi – Mirzam josh and Kuthara 
French – Marjolaine 
Spanish – Mejorana 
Turkish – Mercanköşk, Merzengûş, Kekik otu and Kekikotu 
Mint (peppermint) Mentha piperita 
Arabic – Eqama, Nana, Nana al-fulfuli 
French – Menthe anglaise, menthe poivrée, Sentebon 
Lao – Bai Hom Lap, Bai kankam, Phak hom lap, Phak kan kam and Saranae 
Spanish – Menta 
Mint (spearmint) Mentha spicata 
Mint (water mint) Mentha aquatica 
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 
Bulgarian – Indijsko orehche 
Japanese – Natumegu 
French – Noix de muscade 
Spanish – Nuez moscada 
Oregano Origanum vulgare 
English – Wild Marjoram and Oregano 
French – Oregan 
Maltese – Riegnu 
Italian – Origano 
Thai – Orikano 
Mexican oregano 
Mexican oregano/small oregano Lippia graveolens, Lippia palmeri, Hedeoma patens, Poliomintha longiflora 
Mexican oregano/rosemary mint 
Paprika Capsicum annuum, Capsicum tetragonum 
Albanian – Specë and Speci 
French – Paprika 
Hausa – Tattase 
Nepali – Bhede Khursani 
Spanish – Pimenton 
Parsley Petroselinum crispum, Petroselinum Hortense, Petroselinum sativum 
Croatian (and Serbian) – Peršin and Peršun 
French – Persil 
Polish – Pietruszka zwyczajina 
Spanish – Parejil 
Triginya – Persamelo 
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 
Dutch – Rozemarijin 
French – Romarin 
Latvian – Rozmarīns 
Spanish – Romera 
Triginya – Rozmeri 
Xhosa – Roselinerb 
Saffron Crocus sativus 
Armenian – Kerkoom and Kerkum 
French – Safran 
Swahili – Zafarani 
Urdu – Zafaron and Kisar 
Sage, Common Sage Salvia officinalis 
French – Sauge 
Portuguese – Chá-da-Europa and Salva-mansa 
Spanish – Salvia 
Punjabi – Sathi 
Star anise, Chinese Anise Illicium verum 
Estonian – Harilik tähtaniisipuu and Tähtaniis 
French – Anis étoilé 
Indonesian – Bunga lawang, Adas cina, Pe ka, Pekak, Kembang lawing 
Spanish – Anis estrellado 
Swedish – Stjärnanis 
Sumac Rhus coriaria, Rhus glabra, Rhus typhina 
Coptic – Alithriten 
French – Sumac 
Lithuanian – Žagrenis 
Spanish – Zumaque 
Telugu (spoken in the south-east of India) – Karkkararingi 
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus 
Chinese – Long Hao; Xia Ye Qing Hao 
Spanish – Dragoncilla; estragon 
French – Dragon; estragon 
Germany – Estragon 
Italy – Dragone; estragone 
Thyme Thymus vulgaris 
Albanian – Timus 
Chinese (Mandarin) – Bai li xiang 
Chinese (Cantonese) – Baak leih heung 
French – Thym 
Spanish – Tomillo 
Tigrinya – Tesna 
Xhosa – Umakhunkulab 
Turmeric Curcuma longa, Curcuma domestica 
Bodo (spoken in Northeast India, Nepal and Bengal) – Halde 
French – Safran des Indes 
Hungarian – Kurkuma, Sárga gyömbérgyökér 
Spanish – cúrcuma 
Swahili – Manjano 
a

Sources of some common and botanical names: ref. 21 and 22.

b

Source of local names: ref. 26. The authors have listed only a selection of local names, which are extensive.

Contents

References

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M.
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Roodenrys
 
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J. B.
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Baker
 
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M. S.
Rahman
 
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Ardoin
 
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Luby
 
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Environ. Res.
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108722
 
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G.
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Grandview Research
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Asowata-Ayodele
 
A. M.
Afolayan
 
A. J.
Otunola
 
G. A.
S. Afr. J. Bot.
2016
, vol. 
104
 (pg. 
69
-
75
)
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