CHAPTER 1: An Introduction to Culinary Herbs and Spices: A Global Guide

There is no globally established or agreed definition for culinary herbs and spices. In some literature. Herbs and spices are separate and distinct foods and their definition is based on the part of the plant of origin from which they are sourced. In other literature, the words ‘herb’ and ‘spice’ are used interchangeably because there are similarities between them. For the purposes of this book, the following definitions are used in acknowledgement of the key differences between the foods:

When one talks about culinary herbs and spices, it is likely that the conversation focuses on their diverse range of distinct and strong aromas – from the sharp pine-like with a hint of lemon of rosemary to the earthy mild pungency of black pepper; what they look like – the solid and sturdy root that is ginger and the feathery, almost ethereal, appearance of dill; the forms in which they are purchased – fresh and dried; or their use in meats, curries, casseroles, stews, soups, desserts, and cakes to enhance flavour.

These foods are unique in a culinary context because, as stated above, they possess a range of aromas, which are due to the abundance of certain chemical compounds in them – many of which are volatile²  – and as a consequence they are used as flavour enhancers. However, unlike other foods in one's diet, they are used and consumed in relatively small amounts; a factor that for many years led to the underestimation of their nutritional contribution.^3–5  Furthermore, the levels of habitual use and thus consumption are dependent on a range of factors^3,4,6,7  that include personal choice, appetite, the type of food or dish to be flavoured and how it (the food or dish) is to be prepared, the number of recipes, in which the amounts of culinary herbs and spices added to a food or dish vary, and also the portion size. Thus, the amount used and consumed can vary considerably from day to day for one person, between individuals, and between recipes for the same meal or dish. Predictably, due their culinary use, which forms an important part of their history of use, the amounts consumed from region to region also vary, with estimated intake levels ranging from 0.5 g per day for Europeans to 1.3–1.9 g per day for Australians and New Zealanders to 1.8 g per day in parts of Africa. Moderate intakes are reported for the Middle East and Eastern Asia (2.6 g per person and 3.1 g per person, respectively) and in India, South Africa and Latin America the average intake is reported to be approximately 4.4 g per day.^8,9 

However, these foods are so much more than their culinary properties. History – which is not limited to that of Western countries, introduced to culinary herbs and spices relatively late,^10–12  but also encompasses the pasts of African, Asian, Central and South American countries – suggests that their earliest use by hunter and gatherers to wrap meat led to the accidental discovery that culinary herbs and spices enhanced the taste of food.^10,13  Their history also reveals that their use was, and is, steeped in folklore and that they were used for their health promoting effects by ancient civilizations long before modern day science's focus on these foods for their bioactive properties. For example, the use of culinary herbs and spices to ease digestion and treat digestive disorders dates back to the time of Hippocrates in Ancient Greece and the first and second century in the practice of Ayurvedic medicine in India.^10,13  The history of culinary herbs and spices is a global one, with records of their use in other ancient civilizations, including those of China, Egypt, Rome and Arabia (the pre-Islamic era, as early as 5000 Before the Common Era (BCE) in Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq) in which the use of culinary herbs and spices was influenced by the ancient Greek physician Galen and also the practice of the ancient Romans).^10,13  The international trade of these foods, which is said to date back thousands of years (4500–1900 BCE) to trade between Mesopotamia and Ethiopia, resulted in establishing and influencing the use of culinary herbs and spices in Africa, Asia and Europe.^10,13 

Relatively recent research has now added to the long history of these foods. The last two decades have revealed an array of properties conferred via secondary compounds that are bioactive phytochemicals – many of which are alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids and terpenoids and possess, amongst others, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-cancer activities. Based on a growing amount of evidence, many of these culinary herbs and spices are purported to be of benefit in the maintenance of health and the prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases including type 2 diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and chronic inflammation, which now gives their daily/habitual/routine use a whole new meaning.^5,14  Commentaries and information about these foods now extend beyond their culinary use. Not only have they led to position papers on, and research about, their use as alternatives to fat, salt and sugar to flavour food and to encourage the consumption of vegetables, but also they have led to discussions in scientific literature about the levels of consumption that might confer benefit – an area that is extremely challenging due to their subjective use – and their potential uses due to their bioactive constituents.^14–16 

There is a significant amount of literature (16 800 000 results from a Google search of culinary herbs and spices carried out in October 2019) ranging from peer-reviewed literature on their chemical constituents, bioactive properties and health benefits to their culinary, dietary and medicinal uses, adverse effects, safety and adulteration –- the latter of which is a global issue with some countries reporting significant levels of foreign material such as Sudan I, II, III and IV and lead chromate pigment in commercially available culinary herbs and spice.^17–19  The aim of the authors of this book is to bring together these key elements and more, by focussing on the thirty culinary herbs and spices listed, with both their common and botanical/scientific names, in the Table 1.1 below; the common names, where possible, are in both English and non-English languages so as to reflect the global use of these foods. The inclusion of some of the non-English names also highlights two facts: (1) that there are regional and dialectic differences in the names within countries; and (2) the languages are mainly European and Asian with some that are African. When it comes to Indigenous groups in Australia, New Zealand, and the Americas, although there is a paucity of information, their use for medicinal purposes is acknowledged in the literature.²⁰  The authors acknowledge that more culinary herbs and spices than the thirty of focus in this book are used around the world. However, these thirty were consistently among the lists of the most common culinary herbs and spices provided by online resources, including Gernot Katzer's excellent Geographic Spice Index,^21,22  which provides information on culinary herbs and spices worldwide and categorises them based on regions – Central and Northern Europe, the Mediterranean, West and Central Asia, South Asia, South East Asia, East Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. Other resources that included the thirty of focus here in their list of common culinary herbs and spices include the Seasoning and Spice Association, the European Spice Association, global seasonings and spice market data, and academic literature from around the world.^23–26 

The book is organised so that each culinary herb and spice has its own chapter, beginning with the chapter on allspice and ending with the chapter on turmeric. Each chapter begins with the names of the culinary herb or spice as listed in Table 1.1. A brief taxonomy and description of each culinary herb or spice are provided, as well as a list of varieties (both edible and inedible) and information concerning adulteration. The history of the culinary herb or spice, its region/s of origin and its journey from region to region via the spice trade are explored, as is the development of cultivars as a result of these journeys. Each chapter then delves into the historical uses of each culinary herb or spice and how they influenced and/or were influenced by cultural, religious and traditional beliefs and practices, and also their culinary and medicinal uses of the past and present. (The authors acknowledge that in many cases there is little distinction between these beliefs, practices and uses as they overlap, interact, and/or influence one another. For example, a medicinal use could stem from a traditional belief that is also a religious one.) The major nutritional and phytochemical constituents of each culinary herb or spice are provided, and the culinary and bioactive properties of each are explained in the context of their (the constituents') chemistry. The next section of each chapter is focused on their bioactive properties, purported health benefits and therapeutic potential based on current and emerging research. This section attempts to review and, where possible, assess the potential of each culinary herb and spice to be used as a functional food, specifically their capacity to protect against the development of, and use in the treatment of, chronic non-communicable diseases and other diseases/conditions. However, in a number of cases the assessment is limited by the paucity and/or quality of some of the research carried out. For this section, every attempt has been made to focus on work that has come from clinical trials. However, the findings from in vitro and animal studies, which in many cases have formed the basis for much of the clinical work, have also been included. The final section of each chapter is on safety and adverse effects.

The aim of the book is to provide an in-depth guide for a diverse set of readers on thirty common culinary herbs and spices. The challenge throughout has been to ensure that the book appeals to students, academics and those who work with and have a general interest in these foods. We hope we have found the right balance.