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Culinary Herbs and Spices: A Global Guide
By
Elizabeth I Opara;
Elizabeth I Opara
Kingston University, UK
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Magali Chohan
Magali Chohan
St Mary's University, London, UK
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Hardback ISBN:
978-1-83916-156-8
PDF ISBN:
978-1-83916-444-6
EPUB ISBN:
978-1-83916-325-8
Special Collection:
2021 ebook collection
No. of Pages:
604
Published online:
30 Jul 2021
Published in print:
09 Aug 2021
Book Chapter
Glossary
-
Published:30 Jul 2021
-
Special Collection: 2021 ebook collection
Page range:
P009 - P024
Citation
Culinary Herbs and Spices: A Global Guide, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2021, pp. P009-P024.
Download citation file:
| 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (3-HMG-CoA) reductase | key regulatory enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. |
| Aberrant crypt foci (ACF) | abnormal tube-like glands (lesions) that form on the epithelial cells that line the colon and rectum. They may progress to colorectal cancer. |
| Acetylation | the introduction of an acetyl group into a chemical compound. |
| Acetylcholinesterase | an enzyme which hydrolyses (breaks down) the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and plays a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. |
| Acaricides | pesticides that are used to kill ticks and mites. |
| Adenocarcinoma | cancer that begins in mucus producing glandular cells. Examples include types of breast, colorectal, lung, pancreatic and prostate cancer. |
| Adipocytes | fat cells. |
| Adipose tissue | connective tissue rich in adipocytes. |
| Adrenergic | working on or mimicking the action of adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). |
| Advanced protein oxidation products | biomarkers of oxidative modification of protein which are used as a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Aerial parts of the plant | the parts of the plant above the soil – stem, leaves, flower, fruit, seed. |
| Agonist | compound that binds and activates a receptor to elicit a biological response. |
| Alkylating agents | agents which bind covalently to DNA resulting in DNA strand breaks. They are carcinogenic. |
| Allocation concealment | used in the randomization of participants into groups for clinical trials. The concealment hides the method of sorting the participants to minimise bias. |
| Alpha-amylase | an enzyme which breaks down starch and glycogen. |
| Alpha-glucosidase | an enzyme which breaks down starch and disaccharides to glucose. |
| Amyloid β plaques (or amyloid plaques) | aggregates of proteins that form between nerve cells (neurons). Evidence points to their formation, initially in regions of the brain that are involved with cognitive functions including memory, contributing to the development of Alzheimer's disease. |
| Analgesia | pain relief. |
| Analgesic | medication used to relieve pain. |
| Anaphylactic shock | a severe allergic reaction, which results in a marked drop in blood pressure and narrowing of airways leading to difficulty breathing. |
| Androgenic | referring to male hormones, for example testosterone. |
| Androgens | steroid hormones that regulate the development maintenance and function of male characteristics and reproductive activity. |
| Androgen dependent prostate cancer | prostate cancer dependent on or sensitive to androgens. |
| Androgen independent prostate cancer | prostate cancer not dependent on or sensitive to androgens. |
| Angina | chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. |
| Angiogenesis | formation of new blood vessels. |
| Angiotensin | a hormone that gives rise to vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure. |
| Angiotensin-1-converting enzyme (ACE) | an enzyme which plays a key role in the regulation of blood pressure. |
| Antagonist | a compound that blocks the action of a receptor, its ligands, or agonists by binding to it. |
| Anti-mutagenic | agents/compounds that inhibit the action of mutagens. |
| Anti-proliferative | agents/compounds that inhibit cell proliferation. |
| Antinociceptive | the blocking of the detection of pain by sensory neurons (nerve cells). |
| Antioxidant activity | the blocking, limitation, or prevention of the oxidation of molecules, for example proteins, lipids and DNA by reactive oxygen species. The term antioxidant activity is sometimes used interchangeable with the term antioxidant capacity. |
| Antioxidant capacity | the capacity of a substance to act as an antioxidant, normally the scavenging of free radicals, compared to that of a standard. The term antioxidant capacity is sometimes used interchangeable with the term antioxidant activity. |
| Antioxidant content | the amount of antioxidant in food. |
| Antioxidant status | the overall antioxidant state of the body. |
| Anti-platelet aggregation | inhibition of platelet aggregation. |
| Anxiolytic | an anti-anxiety, calming agent. |
| Aorta | the aorta is the main artery that carries blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. |
| Apolipoprotein | a protein that binds to a lipid to form a lipoprotein. |
| Apoptosis | programmed death of damaged/cancerous cells. |
| Assay | a laboratory-based method used to measure the presence of a compound or activity. |
| Arterial blood pressure | blood pressure. |
| Arterial thrombosis | a blood clot that forms in an artery. Such a clot can obstruct blood flow to the brain or heart, and can narrow an artery or arteries going to the heart leading to angina. |
| Atherogenic index | used as a marker of abnormal lipid levels and an indicator of risk of developing cardiovascular disease. |
| Atherogenesis/atherosclerosis | a build-up of lipids, specifically triglyceride (fat) and cholesterol in and on the walls of arterial blood vessels. (This build up forms into plaques which restrict blood form. If the plaques rupture, they can lead to the formation of blood clots). |
| Autophagy | meaning the ‘eating of self’, it is a cellular process in which cells degrade and destroy old and damaged proteins, other substances and organelles. The breakdown products are recycled to support cellular functions during periods of stress and starvation. |
| Bactericidal | an action which results in killing bacteria. |
| Before the Common Era (BCE) | another and now more commonly used term for before the Christian Era. |
| Beta-adrenergic | an action mediated by beta-adrenoreceptors resulting in the relaxation of the muscle of airways and easier breathing. |
| Biofilm | a collection of one or more microorganisms that adhere to one another and grow on different surfaces. |
| Blinding | a process used in the design of experimental studies in which participants and/or investigators are unaware of the allocation of the participants to a treatment/treatments and the control/placebo. When only the participants or the investigators are unaware of the allocation it is called single blinding. When neither the participants and the investigators are aware of the allocation it is called double blinding. |
| Body mass index | an index derived from the height and the weight of a person. It is an indicator of body fatness and is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height. It is expressed in units of kg m−2. |
| Bradycardia | the slowing down of heart rate. |
| Cancer stem cells | a subpopulation of cells present in tumours which are able to initiate and sustain tumour growth in vivo. |
| Candidiasis | a fungal infection caused by the species of Candida. The infection commonly affects the vagina and skin. |
| Carcinogen | a compound that promotes the cancer process (carcinogenesis). |
| Carcinogenesis | the cancer process which consists of three stages: stage 1 initiation (gene mutation/s), stage 2 promotion (increase in the proliferation of cells carrying the gene mutation/s), and stage 3 progression (irreversible genetic changes in the affected cells (now malignant cells)) with the malignant cells acquiring more aggressive characteristics over time. |
| Cardiac hypertrophy | abnormal enlargement or thickening of the heart muscle. |
| Cardio-depressant | an agent that depresses heart function and lowers blood pressure. |
| Cardiotonic | an effect in which the efficiency and contraction of heart muscle is improved which leads to increased blood flow throughout the body. |
| Cardiotoxicity | damage to the heart caused by harmful chemicals. |
| Cardiovascular disease | a group of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels. Angina, coronary heart disease (CHD), myocardial infarction (heart attack) and stroke are examples of cardiovascular disease. |
| Carrageenan | a polysaccharide extracted from red edible seaweed used in the food industry as a thickening and stabilizing agent; kappa (κ)-carrageenan is a class of carrageenan. |
| Catalase (CAT) | an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. |
| Cell cycle | a 4-stage process of the growth and division of cells. |
| Cell cycle arrest | a stopping point in the cell cycle. |
| Cell differentiation | a process by which a cell changes into a more specialized cell type. |
| Cell migration | the movement of cells in a particular direction to specific locations. Cell migration plays a key role in wound healing and the immune response. |
| Central nervous system | the central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord with the brain playing a central role in the control of most bodily functions including. |
| Cerebral infarction | stroke. |
| Cerebral ischaemia | insufficient blood flow to the brain due to a blockage in an artery. It is a type of stroke. |
| Chemopreventive | an agent that stops the development of cancer. |
| Chitosan | a polysaccharide made from the shell of crustaceans. |
| Cholesterol ester | an ester of cholesterol and a dietary lipid. |
| Cholinergic compounds | compounds/agents that mimic and modulate the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. |
| Clinical trial | a study or experiment in which the effect of a treatment on human health outcomes is investigated. |
| Crossover trial | a study in which participants receive a sequence of treatments. For example, participants are given either the treatment or the control for a given period of time after which they go through a washout period and then those previously given the treatment are given the control and those previously given the control, are given the treatment for the same given period of time. |
| Cross-reactivity | cross-reactivity between allergens occurs when an antibody raised against a specific allergen has a high affinity for a different allergen due to structural similarities between the two allergens. |
| Cyclin D1 | a protein that is a key regulator of the cell cycle. Over expression (overproduction) of this protein has been linked to the development and progression of cancer. |
| Cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX-2) | an enzyme involved in the synthesis of prostaglandin. It is a key pro-inflammatory mediator and is overexpressed in certain cancers including colorectal cancer. |
| Cytochrome P450 enzymes | a family of enzymes located in liver cells, which are involved in the metabolism of drugs and other foreign substances commonly referred to as xenobiotics. These enzymes are involved in the activation of pro-carcinogens (a compound or agent that becomes carcinogenic once it has been metabolised). |
| Cytokine | a large group of protein or peptides that are produced by immune cells. Cytokines mediate and regulate immune responses, inflammation and the formation of blood cells. |
| Cytostatic | inhibition of cell growth and proliferation. |
| Cytotoxic | an action that results in cell damage or cell death. |
| Debitterized | removal of compounds responsible for the bitter sensation/taste. |
| Decoction | a method used to extract herbal or plant material by boiling. |
| Dendritic cells | dendritic cells are cells involved in the immune response; they present antigens, substances that trigger an immune response to T cells, which are a type of immune cell. |
| Detoxification enzymes | enzymes are involved in the deactivation and/or removal of pro-carcinogens and carcinogens. |
| Diastolic blood pressure | pressure in the arteries when the heart rests between beats. It is the bottom number of a blood pressure reading. |
| DNA adduct | a region of DNA covalently bound to a chemical which is potentially carcinogenic. The formation of DNA adducts can initiate carcinogenesis. |
| DNA lesions | DNA damage. |
| Dopaminergic | a compound or agent that mimics or modulates the neurotransmitter dopamine. |
| Dosage | a specified amount of an agent or drug prescribed to be taken a set number of times a day/week for a specified period of time. In some cases the dosage also takes into consideration body weight and age. |
| Dose | a specified amount of an agent or drug taken at one time. |
| Dose-dependent | the level of a response to drug, chemical or food in relation to the amount/dose used. |
| Double blind placebo randomized controlled trial | a study designed so that participants are randomly assigned a treatment or placebo; neither the participants nor the investigators are aware of who has been allocated the treatment or the placebo. |
| Dry mouth | on its own dry mouth is not a serious condition; however, it can be a sign of a number of conditions including autoimmune diseases, diabetes, thrush (fungal infection in the mouth), stroke and Alzheimer's disease. |
| Dysmenorrhea (primary) | a condition in which abdominal cramps occur just before or during menstruation which are not caused by another female reproductive disorder, for example endometriosis – a painful condition in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus (the womb) called the endometrium are found outside the womb, for example in the ovaries or fallopian tubes. |
| Dyslipidemia | abnormal, normally high lipid levels. |
| ED50 | The dose at which a biological effect occurs in 50% of the test sample to which an agent was administered. |
| Emulsifier | an agent that allows for the mixing of two liquids that are immiscible (they do not mix) in a suspension commonly referred to as an emulsion. |
| Endothelial cells | cells that line the interior side of blood vessels. |
| Endothelial function/endothelial vascular function | the function of the endothelium, which is the lining of the inside of heart and blood vessels. |
| Endothelin-1 | a key regulator of blood pressure as it is a potent vasoconstrictor. |
| Epididymal fat | fat in rodents attached to the testis/testicle. |
| Epigenetics | changes to gene expression that do not involve changes to the gene sequence. |
| Epithelial | thin layer of tissue that lines the skin, the respiratory and digestive tracts and other hollow organs including the urinary bladder, fallopian tubes and ureters. |
| Erythema | redness of skin. |
| Expression | the synthesis/production of protein or when genetic information is used in the synthesis of a protein. |
| Ex vivo | experiment or investigation of tissue or cells taken from an organism (human or animal) carried out in an external environment. |
| Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) | an assay used to determine the antioxidant capacity of a compound, plant or food. |
| Fibrinogen | a glycoprotein utilized in the production of blood clots, it is a substrate of thrombin, which is a protease enzyme, and is converted to the protein fibrin. |
| Fibrinolysis | the breakdown of the protein fibrin in blood clots. |
| Fibrinolytic effect | fibrin is a clotting protein and fibrinolytic agents/medicines/substances are used to treat conditions caused by arterial thrombosis (blood clots that obstruct the flow of blood to major organs such as myocardial infarction and stroke). |
| Fibromyalgia | a chronic condition associated with pain. |
| Flatus | gas from the stomach or intestine. Sometimes referred to as intestinal gas. |
| Flow mediated dilation | a marker of improved arterial endothelial function and thus decreased risk of cardiovascular disease. |
| Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) | a hormone which stimulates the production of ovarian follicles (small fluid filled sacs in the ovaries which have the potential to release an egg for fertilisation). |
| Free fatty acids | produced from the breakdown of triglyceride/triacylglycerol/fat. |
| Free radicals | unstable molecules that can cause damage to cells, DNA, lipids and protein. They are unstable as they have one or more unpaired electrons in their outer shell. |
| Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase | an enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrates) |
| Fungicidal | destroying or inhibiting the growth of fungi. |
| Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) | an inhibitory neurotransmitter which decreases activity of the central nervous system. |
| Gastric lesions | damage to the stomach, which include ulcers, enlargement due to tissue growth as the result of increased cell proliferation, inflammation of the lining (mucosa) of the stomach. |
| Gastric motility | movement of food along the gastro-intestinal tract. |
| Gastric mucosa | lining of stomach. |
| Genotoxicity | damaging to DNA. |
| Gingivitis | inflammation of the gums, which if left untreated can lead to gum disease. |
| Glucagon | a hormone produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It is involved in the regulation of glucose and triglyceride metabolism by increasing the levels of glucose and fatty acids in the blood. |
| Glucokinase | an enzyme involved in glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose) in the liver. |
| Gluconeogenesis | the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrates. |
| Glucose 6 phosphatase | an enzyme found mainly in the kidney and liver which is involved in gluconeogenesis. |
| Glucose homeostasis | the maintenance of glucose levels/concentration within a narrow range. |
| Glucose oxidation | the conversion of glucose to carbon dioxide. This process results in the release of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). |
| Glucose tolerance | the ability to dispose (metabolise) of a glucose load (for example a glucose drink or white bread). |
| Glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT 4) | insulin dependent glucose transporter found in adipose tissue, skeletal and cardiac muscle. |
| Glucuronidase | an enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates for example starch. |
| Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) | an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. |
| Glutathione S-transferase | a phase 2 enzyme involved in the detoxification of pro-carcinogens and carcinogens. |
| Glutamatergic compounds | compounds/agents that mimic and modulate the amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate respectively. |
| Glycaemic control | maintenance of normal blood glucose levels – see cinnamon chapter. |
| Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) | glucose bound to haemoglobin. It is a biomarker of diabetes and can lead to the vascular complications that result from this disease. |
| Glycogen | a glucose polysaccharide found in the liver and skeletal muscle. It is the main storage form of glucose in the human body. |
| Glycoprotein | a protein bound to a carbohydrate. |
| Glycoside | a molecule in which a carbohydrate is bound to a non carbohydrate compound, for example a flavonoid, via a glycosidic bond. |
| Gram-negative | bacteria that have a cell wall made up of a thin layer of peptidoglycans (polymers of carbohydrates and amino acids). When undergoing a technique called Gram staining they stain pink/red. |
| Gram-positive | bacteria that have a cell wall made up of a thick layer of peptidoglycans (polymers of carbohydrates and amino acids). When undergoing a technique called Gram staining they stain purple/violet. |
| Granuloma | a granuloma forms as a result of infection or inflammation; it is a collection of macrophages. |
| Haematocrit | the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood, platelet and red blood cell number. |
| Hepatic fatty acid synthase | an enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of long chain fatty acids in the liver. |
| Hepatic steatosis | accumulation of triglyceride (fat) in liver, which results in liver enlargement and dysfunction. |
| Heterogeneity | variability in study design and/or outcomes. |
| High density lipoprotein cholesterol | cholesterol removed from blood by high density lipoproteins and carried back to the liver. It is also referred to as ‘good’ cholesterol as elevated levels are associated with a decrease risk of cardiovascular disease. |
| Hip circumference | the distance around the largest parts of one's hips. It is used with the waist circumference to determine the waist-hip ratio, which is used for determining body fat distribution and as an indicator/marker of cardiovascular disease risk. |
| Hippocampus | a region of the brain involved in the formation of new memories. It is also involved in/associated with learning and emotions. |
| Histamine | an allergic response mediator. |
| Histone | a protein that binds to DNA. Histones through this binding are essential for the packaging of DNA into chromosomes. |
| Homeostasis | the state of steady internal conditions maintained via tight regulatory processes. |
| Hormone sensitive lipase | an enzyme that breaks down triglyceride (fat) to fatty acids in adipose tissue. |
| Hydroalcoholic extract | culinary herb or spice extracted in a water and ethanol solvent mix. |
| Hypercholesterolemia | elevated cholesterol levels. |
| Hyperglycaemia | high blood glucose. |
| Hyperlipidemia | high blood lipid. |
| Hyperlipidemic | low blood lipid. |
| Hypertension | high blood pressure. |
| Hypoglycaemia | low blood glucose. |
| Hypothermia | dangerously low body temperature due to the body losing heat faster that it can produce heat. |
| Immunoglobulin E (IgE) | a class of antibodies involved in the generation of allergic reactions known as type 1 reactions. |
| Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) | an enzyme that produces nitric oxide from arginine. It is a key inflammatory mediator. |
| Infantile colic | a condition in which an infant has repeated episodes of excessive crying. The causes are not clear but a number of conditions have been put forward including food allergies, food intolerance, gastrointestinal inflammation and poor feeding technique. |
| Interleukin 1 | a cytokine that plays a key role in regulating and mediating immune and inflammatory responses. |
| Interleukin 1 beta (β) | a cytokine and a form of interleukin 1. It is a key mediator of the inflammatory response. |
| Interleukin 6 | a cytokine and key mediator of immune responses. It plays a key role in activating host defenses shortly after an injury or an infection occurs and is a pro-inflammatory cytokine. |
| Interleukin 8 | a pro-inflammatory cytokine. |
| Intestinal mucosa | the innermost lining of the intestinal tract. It is involved in absorption and consists of epithelial cells. It also acts as a barrier against infectious agents. |
| Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | within or administered via the peritoneum. The peritoneum is a thin, transparent membrane which lines the abdominal cavity and encloses abdominal organs within this cavity. |
| Ischaemia | restriction of blood flow to tissue leading to a lack of oxygen resulting in tissue damage or tissue death – see basil chapter. |
| Isoenzyme | enzymes with different structural forms but the same enzyme activity. |
| Isoprostanes | products formed from the peroxidation of essential fatty acids by free radicals – they are used as a marker of oxidative stress. |
| In vitro | meaning ‘in glass’ and describes studies/experiments on microorganisms, cells and tissues outside their normal environment, for example in a test tube, petri dish, plate or flask. |
| In vivo | studies carried out using whole and living organisms, for example animals or humans. |
| Ketonuria | a condition in which ketone bodies are present in urine. |
| Larvicidal | action against the immature form of a parasite. |
| LD50 | lethal dose for 50% of the test sample (group) used. |
| Leukocytosis | a marked increase in the number of whole blood cells. |
| Lipid peroxidation | oxidative degradation of lipids by free radicals – it is a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Lipids | molecules that contain hydrogen, carbon and oxygen and tend to be insoluble in water. Lipids of concern with regards to diet and health include cholesterol and triglycerides (fat). |
| Lipolysis | breakdown of triglyceride. |
| Lipogenesis | synthesis of triglyceride. |
| Lipoprotein | complex particles made up of proteins and lipids which transport lipids including triglycerides (fat) and cholesterol. There are four types – low density lipoprotein (see below), high density lipoprotein (see above), very low density lipoprotein (see below) and chylomicrons, which transport dietary triglyceride (fat). |
| Lipoxygenases | enzymes involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response via the synthesis of leukotrienes, which are pro-inflammatory mediators. They are also involved in the synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators. |
| Low density lipoprotein cholesterol | cholesterol transported by low density lipoproteins from the liver to other tissue. Also referred to as ‘bad cholesterol’ as elevated levels are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. |
| Luteinising hormone (LH) | a hormone which triggers the ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum (which are cells in the ovaries that produce progesterone during early pregnancy). |
| Malondialdehyde (MDA) | a reactive aldehyde and a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Medium chain fatty acids | fatty acids with between 6 and 12 carbon atoms. |
| Meridians | paths through which ‘qi’ life-energy flows. Meridians are used in traditional Chinese medicines. |
| Mesenteric fat | fat attached to the intestines. |
| Meta-analysis | a statistical analysis of combined results/data from multiple studies identified by a systematic review. |
| Metabolic syndrome (MetS) | a combination of diabetes, high blood pressure (hypertension), elevated lipid (triglyceride (fat) and/or cholesterol levels) – hyperlipidemia – excess fat around the waist, and high blood glucose levels (hyperglycaemia); it can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (coronary heart disease, stroke). |
| Metal-chelating property | the ability to bind to metals and to form stable complexes that are water soluble. This property is used to treat excessively high levels of iron, lead and also copper. |
| Metal-chelator | an agent able to bind to metals to form stable complexes that are water soluble. |
| Metastases/Metastatic | the spreading of cancer beyond its original site to other parts of the body. |
| Microencapsulation | a technique by which the active ingredients are packaged within a second material for shielding the active ingredient from the surrounding environment. |
| Mid upper arm circumference | the circumference of the upper arm (the non-dominant arm). It is used to assess nutritional status. |
| Monocyte | white blood cells/immune cells which differentiate (develop) into macrophages or dendritic cells. |
| Motor activity | movement. |
| Mucin | a glycoprotein produced by epithelial cells. Mucus consists of mucins. |
| Mucous membrane | a membrane that lines cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs including the gastrointestinal tract and its organs. |
| Mutagen | an agent that causes mutations. |
| Mutagenesis | the changing of DNA that results in mutations. |
| Mutagenic | causes a mutation. |
| Myocardial injury | damage to heart muscle resulting in for example myocardial infarction (heart attack). |
| Narrative review | a comprehensive and objective analysis of research on a topic using peer reviewed literature. It is also referred to as a literature review. |
| Neuroblastoma | cancer that develops in immature nerve cells. |
| Neurofibrillary tangle formation | the aggregation of tau proteins which are abundant in neurons (nerve cells) in the central nervous system. This formation is a feature/characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. |
| Neuropathy | damage or dysfunction of nerves which result in numbness, tingling, pain and muscle weakness in the affected areas. |
| Neutrophils | a type of white blood/immune cell. |
| Nitric oxide | a free radical, pro-inflammatory mediator and lowers blood pressure by stimulation vasodilation. |
| Nitrosative | the ability to introduce nitric oxide (NO) into organic compounds. Nitrosative stress, as with oxidative stress, gives rise to cell damage and is said to be involved in the development of chronic disease via the action of reactive nitrogen species, which are formed due to very high levels of NO. |
| No observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) | the highest dose at which no toxic or adverse effect is observed. |
| Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) | a group of conditions caused by the accumulation of fat in the liver. |
| Non-peer review | work that is not evaluated by individuals who are expert in an appropriate field of research. |
| Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) | a class of drugs that are not steroids which are used to decrease pain, inflammation, fever and blood clots. |
| Normotensive | normal blood pressure. |
| Nuclear factor κB (NFκB) (full name – nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) | a protein that regulates immune and inflammatory responses via activating the expression of genes involved in these responses. |
| Oedema | fluid retention. |
| Oestradiol (also estradiol) | is an oestrogen steroid and the main oestrogen in women. The other oestrogen hormones are estrone (made after menopause) and estriol (the main oestrogen/estrogen during pregnancy). |
| Oestrogen/estrogen | a class of female steroid hormones. |
| Oestrogen/estrogen receptor negative breast cancer | breast cancer that does not have any oestrogen/estrogen receptors. It tends to grow faster than oestrogen positive breast cancer. |
| Oestrogen/estrogen receptor positive breast cancer | breast cancer that has oestrogen receptors. This type of breast cancer uses of oestrogen to grow. |
| Open label | not a blinded study; the participants and investigators know what treatment they have been given/what intervention they have received. |
| Opioid | pain relieving drugs. |
| Osteoclasts | bone cells that break down bone tissue – a process that is required for normal bone formation and remodelling. |
| Oxidative stress | imbalance between antioxidants and reactive oxygen species in the body. The latter are in excess. |
| Pancreatic beta (β) cells | cells in the pancreas that synthesize and release insulin. |
| Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) | part of the autonomic nervous system the PNS decreases respiration, heart rate and blood pressure and increases digestion, the production of saliva and mucus and urine secretion, and by doing so conserves energy. |
| Pathogenic | causes disease. |
| Peer review | work that is evaluated by individuals who are expert in an appropriate field of research. |
| Percentage body fat | the percentage of total body mass that is fat. |
| Peripheral nervous system | the peripheral nervous system extends beyond the brain and spinal cord and forms a communication network between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. |
| Periodontitis | gum disease. |
| Peritoneal | pertaining to the peritoneum – a membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the surface of abdominal organs including the liver and intestines. |
| Phagocytic activity | the engulfing/ingestion of bacteria, harmful foreign particles and dead and dying cells. |
| Phagocytic cells | immune cells that use the process of phagocytosis. |
| Phagocytosis | engulfing of bacteria, debris and dead cells by immune cells. |
| Phase 1 enzymes | enzymes involved in drug metabolism. Phase 1 enzymes also activate pro-carcinogens. The cytochrome P450 enzymes are phase 1 enzymes. |
| Phase 2 detoxification | a process which involves the removal of carcinogens and procarcinogens. |
| Phase 2 enzymes | enzymes involved in drug metabolism. Many but not all phase 2 enzymes are involved in the detoxification of carcinogens or procarcinogen. The glutathione S-transferases are phase 2 enzymes. |
| Placebo | an intervention or treatment that has no therapeutic value. |
| Plaques of β-amyloid fibrils | these characterize Alzheimer's disease and are neurotoxic as they destroy connections between neurons. |
| Platelet aggregation | this process – the clumping together of platelets plays an important role in the development of arterial thrombosis. |
| Platelets | small blood cells that form clots via a process called aggregation. |
| Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) | an endocrine disorder that gives rise to a number of conditions in women of reproductive/child bearing age including hyperandrogenism (excess androgen (male hormone) levels), irregular menstrual cycles and/or polycystic ovaries (ovaries that form small fluid filled sacs, also called follicles, which may fail to release eggs). |
| Postprandial | the period following the consumption of food or a meal. |
| PPM | parts per million, for example 1 mg in 1 Litre. |
| Pre-adipocytes | cells that develop/differentiate into fat cells. |
| Precursor | a compound from which another compound is formed via a chemical reaction. |
| Pre-diabetic | a subject who has a higher than normal blood glucose which is not high enough for their condition to be diagnosed as type 2 diabetes. However, they have an increased risk therefore of developing type 2 diabetes. The preferred term is intermediate hyperglycaemia to avoid any stigma linked to the word diabetes. |
| Preprandial | before the consumption of food or a meal. |
| Pro-inflammatory | promotes inflammation. |
| Prolactin | a hormone required for breast growth and development and breast milk production. |
| Prostacyclins | members of the prostaglandin family. |
| Prostaglandins | family of lipids produced at the site of tissue damage or infection. They are key mediators/regulators of inflammation/tissue injury – see basil chapter. |
| Protein glycation | the binding of glucose to a protein. Protein glycation is a biomarker of diabetes and can lead to the vascular complications that result from this disease. An example of a glycated protein is glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c). |
| Proteinuria | excess protein in urine. |
| Pro-thrombotic | promotes thrombosis/blood clotting. |
| Provitamin A | carotenoids, such as beta-carotene and alpha carotene, that are converted to vitamin A. Provitamin A is found in plant foods. Please note: not all carotenoids can be converted to vitamin A. |
| Quorum sensing | a process in which bacteria release chemicals that act as signalling molecules via which bacteria are able to sense the number of bacteria and as a consequence behaviour. In the case of pathogenic bacteria this behaviour is virulence, which is the severity of the infection. |
| Radical scavenging | scavenging of free radicals by compounds such as antioxidants. |
| Randomization | subjects are randomly assigned to different groups. Randomization reduces the risk of bias in experiments. |
| Randomized crossover trial | a study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive a sequence of treatments. |
| Randomized triple blind placebo controlled clinical trial | a randomized experiment in which the participants are randomly assigned to an intervention/treatment which is unknown to the participants, those who give the intervention/treatment and those who assess the outcomes. |
| Reactive oxygen species | unstable/highly reactive oxygen containing molecules, which can cause cell damage/cell death by interacting/reacting with proteins, lipids and DNA. |
| Reactive nitrogen species | highly reactive molecules derived from nitric oxide which can cause cell damage/cell death by interacting/reacting with proteins, lipids and DNA. |
| Receptor | a protein or glycoprotein that initiates a biological/biochemical/chemical response by binding to molecules commonly preferred to as ligands or messengers. |
| Reduced glutathione (GSH) | reduced form of glutathione, which is a tripeptide (a small protein). The reduced form of glutathione is an antioxidant. |
| Reducing power | the ability of a chemical to reduce (give electron to) another compound. It is used by some as a measure of antioxidant capacity. |
| Reperfusion-induced cerebral damage | restoration of blood flow to previously ischaemic (see above for ischaemia) tissue resulting in extensive/increased tissue damage. |
| Reporting bias | only favourable results are reported leading to inappropriate conclusions. |
| Research bias | an error introduced into a research study which can result in false or misleading conclusions. |
| Retrospective cohort study | a study in which investigators look back at/analyse already obtained data obtained from a cohort to determine an association between an exposure and an outcome. |
| Saponin | bitter tasting compound normally derived from plants. |
| Selection bias | introduction of bias into the selection of participants resulting in randomization not being properly achieved. The end result is results/outcomes that do not represent the population the investigator intended to investigate. |
| Serotonergic | an effect that results in the mimicking or release of the neurotransmitter serotonin. |
| Single centred study | a study in which participants/subjects from a hospital, clinic, region or country are used. |
| Split mouth study design | a study design popular in oral health research in which each of two treatments are randomly assigned to either the right or left side of the dentition (teeth). |
| Squamous | relates to thin flattened cells that make up a layer of epithelium. |
| Sub-mucosa | a layer of connective tissue that supports/sits under the mucosa. |
| Substrate | a molecule or compound that undergoes a chemical reaction under the action of an enzyme or other catalyst resulting in a product. |
| Supercritical fluid | any substance with properties between a gas and a liquid. |
| Supercritical fluid extraction | extraction using a supercritical fluid. |
| Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) | part of the autonomic nervous system, the SNS readies the body for the fight or flight response by increasing heart rate and respiration and therefore increases energy expenditure. |
| Superoxide dismutase (SOD) | an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of the free radical superoxide to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen. |
| Superoxide radical | a free radical. |
| Synergy | occurs when the biological effect of two agents or compounds exceed that of the sum of the biological effects of the individual agents or compounds. |
| Systematic review | a type of literature review in which the collection of data (obtained from peer reviewed research papers) and the analysis and critical appraisal of the data are carried out using a systematic approach. |
| Systolic blood pressure | pressure blood exerts against the arterial wall when the heart beats. It is the top number of a blood pressure reading. |
| T cell | a type of lymphocyte, which is an immune/white blood cell. |
| Tachycardia | term for when the heart rate is over 100 beats per minute. |
| Thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) | a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Tincture | an extract prepared/dissolved with/in ethanol. |
| Total antioxidant power/capacity | used to assess antioxidant status. |
| Toxigenic fungi | fungi that produce toxins for example mycotoxins. |
| Triphala | also known as the three fruits is a polyherbal Ayurvedic formulation. |
| Triglyceride | a dietary lipid, also known as fat or triacylglycerol. |
| Tumorigenesis | tumour formation. |
| Tumorigenic | forming or tending to form tumours. |
| Tumour multiplicity | the mean number of tumours per organism. |
| Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) | a pro-inflammatory cytokine. |
| Uropathogen | a pathogen that causes urinary tract infection. |
| Vascular permeability | the capacity of the blood vessel wall to allow small molecules and cells in and out of the vessel. Vascular permeability increases due to inflammation. |
| Vascular relaxation | relaxation of smooth muscle in blood vessels. |
| Vasodilatory | opening/dilation of blood vessels. |
| Vasoprotective | ability to protect blood vessels from certain conditions. |
| Very low density lipoprotein cholesterol | cholesterol transported by very low density lipoproteins, which are made in the liver. Although it carries cholesterol from the liver to other tissues, it mainly transports triglyceride (fat) in the body. |
| Waist-hip ratio | the ratio of the waist circumference to the hip circumference. It is used for determining body fat distribution and as an indicator/marker of cardiovascular disease risk. |
| Waist circumference | the circumference of one's abdomen at the level of the umbilicus (belly button). It is a good measure of visceral fat and so on its own it can be used as a marker of high blood lipid levels, high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes. It can also be used to determine one's waist hip ratio, which can be used as an indicator/marker of cardiovascular disease risk. |
| 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (3-HMG-CoA) reductase | key regulatory enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. |
| Aberrant crypt foci (ACF) | abnormal tube-like glands (lesions) that form on the epithelial cells that line the colon and rectum. They may progress to colorectal cancer. |
| Acetylation | the introduction of an acetyl group into a chemical compound. |
| Acetylcholinesterase | an enzyme which hydrolyses (breaks down) the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and plays a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. |
| Acaricides | pesticides that are used to kill ticks and mites. |
| Adenocarcinoma | cancer that begins in mucus producing glandular cells. Examples include types of breast, colorectal, lung, pancreatic and prostate cancer. |
| Adipocytes | fat cells. |
| Adipose tissue | connective tissue rich in adipocytes. |
| Adrenergic | working on or mimicking the action of adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). |
| Advanced protein oxidation products | biomarkers of oxidative modification of protein which are used as a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Aerial parts of the plant | the parts of the plant above the soil – stem, leaves, flower, fruit, seed. |
| Agonist | compound that binds and activates a receptor to elicit a biological response. |
| Alkylating agents | agents which bind covalently to DNA resulting in DNA strand breaks. They are carcinogenic. |
| Allocation concealment | used in the randomization of participants into groups for clinical trials. The concealment hides the method of sorting the participants to minimise bias. |
| Alpha-amylase | an enzyme which breaks down starch and glycogen. |
| Alpha-glucosidase | an enzyme which breaks down starch and disaccharides to glucose. |
| Amyloid β plaques (or amyloid plaques) | aggregates of proteins that form between nerve cells (neurons). Evidence points to their formation, initially in regions of the brain that are involved with cognitive functions including memory, contributing to the development of Alzheimer's disease. |
| Analgesia | pain relief. |
| Analgesic | medication used to relieve pain. |
| Anaphylactic shock | a severe allergic reaction, which results in a marked drop in blood pressure and narrowing of airways leading to difficulty breathing. |
| Androgenic | referring to male hormones, for example testosterone. |
| Androgens | steroid hormones that regulate the development maintenance and function of male characteristics and reproductive activity. |
| Androgen dependent prostate cancer | prostate cancer dependent on or sensitive to androgens. |
| Androgen independent prostate cancer | prostate cancer not dependent on or sensitive to androgens. |
| Angina | chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. |
| Angiogenesis | formation of new blood vessels. |
| Angiotensin | a hormone that gives rise to vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure. |
| Angiotensin-1-converting enzyme (ACE) | an enzyme which plays a key role in the regulation of blood pressure. |
| Antagonist | a compound that blocks the action of a receptor, its ligands, or agonists by binding to it. |
| Anti-mutagenic | agents/compounds that inhibit the action of mutagens. |
| Anti-proliferative | agents/compounds that inhibit cell proliferation. |
| Antinociceptive | the blocking of the detection of pain by sensory neurons (nerve cells). |
| Antioxidant activity | the blocking, limitation, or prevention of the oxidation of molecules, for example proteins, lipids and DNA by reactive oxygen species. The term antioxidant activity is sometimes used interchangeable with the term antioxidant capacity. |
| Antioxidant capacity | the capacity of a substance to act as an antioxidant, normally the scavenging of free radicals, compared to that of a standard. The term antioxidant capacity is sometimes used interchangeable with the term antioxidant activity. |
| Antioxidant content | the amount of antioxidant in food. |
| Antioxidant status | the overall antioxidant state of the body. |
| Anti-platelet aggregation | inhibition of platelet aggregation. |
| Anxiolytic | an anti-anxiety, calming agent. |
| Aorta | the aorta is the main artery that carries blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. |
| Apolipoprotein | a protein that binds to a lipid to form a lipoprotein. |
| Apoptosis | programmed death of damaged/cancerous cells. |
| Assay | a laboratory-based method used to measure the presence of a compound or activity. |
| Arterial blood pressure | blood pressure. |
| Arterial thrombosis | a blood clot that forms in an artery. Such a clot can obstruct blood flow to the brain or heart, and can narrow an artery or arteries going to the heart leading to angina. |
| Atherogenic index | used as a marker of abnormal lipid levels and an indicator of risk of developing cardiovascular disease. |
| Atherogenesis/atherosclerosis | a build-up of lipids, specifically triglyceride (fat) and cholesterol in and on the walls of arterial blood vessels. (This build up forms into plaques which restrict blood form. If the plaques rupture, they can lead to the formation of blood clots). |
| Autophagy | meaning the ‘eating of self’, it is a cellular process in which cells degrade and destroy old and damaged proteins, other substances and organelles. The breakdown products are recycled to support cellular functions during periods of stress and starvation. |
| Bactericidal | an action which results in killing bacteria. |
| Before the Common Era (BCE) | another and now more commonly used term for before the Christian Era. |
| Beta-adrenergic | an action mediated by beta-adrenoreceptors resulting in the relaxation of the muscle of airways and easier breathing. |
| Biofilm | a collection of one or more microorganisms that adhere to one another and grow on different surfaces. |
| Blinding | a process used in the design of experimental studies in which participants and/or investigators are unaware of the allocation of the participants to a treatment/treatments and the control/placebo. When only the participants or the investigators are unaware of the allocation it is called single blinding. When neither the participants and the investigators are aware of the allocation it is called double blinding. |
| Body mass index | an index derived from the height and the weight of a person. It is an indicator of body fatness and is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height. It is expressed in units of kg m−2. |
| Bradycardia | the slowing down of heart rate. |
| Cancer stem cells | a subpopulation of cells present in tumours which are able to initiate and sustain tumour growth in vivo. |
| Candidiasis | a fungal infection caused by the species of Candida. The infection commonly affects the vagina and skin. |
| Carcinogen | a compound that promotes the cancer process (carcinogenesis). |
| Carcinogenesis | the cancer process which consists of three stages: stage 1 initiation (gene mutation/s), stage 2 promotion (increase in the proliferation of cells carrying the gene mutation/s), and stage 3 progression (irreversible genetic changes in the affected cells (now malignant cells)) with the malignant cells acquiring more aggressive characteristics over time. |
| Cardiac hypertrophy | abnormal enlargement or thickening of the heart muscle. |
| Cardio-depressant | an agent that depresses heart function and lowers blood pressure. |
| Cardiotonic | an effect in which the efficiency and contraction of heart muscle is improved which leads to increased blood flow throughout the body. |
| Cardiotoxicity | damage to the heart caused by harmful chemicals. |
| Cardiovascular disease | a group of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels. Angina, coronary heart disease (CHD), myocardial infarction (heart attack) and stroke are examples of cardiovascular disease. |
| Carrageenan | a polysaccharide extracted from red edible seaweed used in the food industry as a thickening and stabilizing agent; kappa (κ)-carrageenan is a class of carrageenan. |
| Catalase (CAT) | an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. |
| Cell cycle | a 4-stage process of the growth and division of cells. |
| Cell cycle arrest | a stopping point in the cell cycle. |
| Cell differentiation | a process by which a cell changes into a more specialized cell type. |
| Cell migration | the movement of cells in a particular direction to specific locations. Cell migration plays a key role in wound healing and the immune response. |
| Central nervous system | the central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord with the brain playing a central role in the control of most bodily functions including. |
| Cerebral infarction | stroke. |
| Cerebral ischaemia | insufficient blood flow to the brain due to a blockage in an artery. It is a type of stroke. |
| Chemopreventive | an agent that stops the development of cancer. |
| Chitosan | a polysaccharide made from the shell of crustaceans. |
| Cholesterol ester | an ester of cholesterol and a dietary lipid. |
| Cholinergic compounds | compounds/agents that mimic and modulate the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. |
| Clinical trial | a study or experiment in which the effect of a treatment on human health outcomes is investigated. |
| Crossover trial | a study in which participants receive a sequence of treatments. For example, participants are given either the treatment or the control for a given period of time after which they go through a washout period and then those previously given the treatment are given the control and those previously given the control, are given the treatment for the same given period of time. |
| Cross-reactivity | cross-reactivity between allergens occurs when an antibody raised against a specific allergen has a high affinity for a different allergen due to structural similarities between the two allergens. |
| Cyclin D1 | a protein that is a key regulator of the cell cycle. Over expression (overproduction) of this protein has been linked to the development and progression of cancer. |
| Cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX-2) | an enzyme involved in the synthesis of prostaglandin. It is a key pro-inflammatory mediator and is overexpressed in certain cancers including colorectal cancer. |
| Cytochrome P450 enzymes | a family of enzymes located in liver cells, which are involved in the metabolism of drugs and other foreign substances commonly referred to as xenobiotics. These enzymes are involved in the activation of pro-carcinogens (a compound or agent that becomes carcinogenic once it has been metabolised). |
| Cytokine | a large group of protein or peptides that are produced by immune cells. Cytokines mediate and regulate immune responses, inflammation and the formation of blood cells. |
| Cytostatic | inhibition of cell growth and proliferation. |
| Cytotoxic | an action that results in cell damage or cell death. |
| Debitterized | removal of compounds responsible for the bitter sensation/taste. |
| Decoction | a method used to extract herbal or plant material by boiling. |
| Dendritic cells | dendritic cells are cells involved in the immune response; they present antigens, substances that trigger an immune response to T cells, which are a type of immune cell. |
| Detoxification enzymes | enzymes are involved in the deactivation and/or removal of pro-carcinogens and carcinogens. |
| Diastolic blood pressure | pressure in the arteries when the heart rests between beats. It is the bottom number of a blood pressure reading. |
| DNA adduct | a region of DNA covalently bound to a chemical which is potentially carcinogenic. The formation of DNA adducts can initiate carcinogenesis. |
| DNA lesions | DNA damage. |
| Dopaminergic | a compound or agent that mimics or modulates the neurotransmitter dopamine. |
| Dosage | a specified amount of an agent or drug prescribed to be taken a set number of times a day/week for a specified period of time. In some cases the dosage also takes into consideration body weight and age. |
| Dose | a specified amount of an agent or drug taken at one time. |
| Dose-dependent | the level of a response to drug, chemical or food in relation to the amount/dose used. |
| Double blind placebo randomized controlled trial | a study designed so that participants are randomly assigned a treatment or placebo; neither the participants nor the investigators are aware of who has been allocated the treatment or the placebo. |
| Dry mouth | on its own dry mouth is not a serious condition; however, it can be a sign of a number of conditions including autoimmune diseases, diabetes, thrush (fungal infection in the mouth), stroke and Alzheimer's disease. |
| Dysmenorrhea (primary) | a condition in which abdominal cramps occur just before or during menstruation which are not caused by another female reproductive disorder, for example endometriosis – a painful condition in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus (the womb) called the endometrium are found outside the womb, for example in the ovaries or fallopian tubes. |
| Dyslipidemia | abnormal, normally high lipid levels. |
| ED50 | The dose at which a biological effect occurs in 50% of the test sample to which an agent was administered. |
| Emulsifier | an agent that allows for the mixing of two liquids that are immiscible (they do not mix) in a suspension commonly referred to as an emulsion. |
| Endothelial cells | cells that line the interior side of blood vessels. |
| Endothelial function/endothelial vascular function | the function of the endothelium, which is the lining of the inside of heart and blood vessels. |
| Endothelin-1 | a key regulator of blood pressure as it is a potent vasoconstrictor. |
| Epididymal fat | fat in rodents attached to the testis/testicle. |
| Epigenetics | changes to gene expression that do not involve changes to the gene sequence. |
| Epithelial | thin layer of tissue that lines the skin, the respiratory and digestive tracts and other hollow organs including the urinary bladder, fallopian tubes and ureters. |
| Erythema | redness of skin. |
| Expression | the synthesis/production of protein or when genetic information is used in the synthesis of a protein. |
| Ex vivo | experiment or investigation of tissue or cells taken from an organism (human or animal) carried out in an external environment. |
| Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) | an assay used to determine the antioxidant capacity of a compound, plant or food. |
| Fibrinogen | a glycoprotein utilized in the production of blood clots, it is a substrate of thrombin, which is a protease enzyme, and is converted to the protein fibrin. |
| Fibrinolysis | the breakdown of the protein fibrin in blood clots. |
| Fibrinolytic effect | fibrin is a clotting protein and fibrinolytic agents/medicines/substances are used to treat conditions caused by arterial thrombosis (blood clots that obstruct the flow of blood to major organs such as myocardial infarction and stroke). |
| Fibromyalgia | a chronic condition associated with pain. |
| Flatus | gas from the stomach or intestine. Sometimes referred to as intestinal gas. |
| Flow mediated dilation | a marker of improved arterial endothelial function and thus decreased risk of cardiovascular disease. |
| Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) | a hormone which stimulates the production of ovarian follicles (small fluid filled sacs in the ovaries which have the potential to release an egg for fertilisation). |
| Free fatty acids | produced from the breakdown of triglyceride/triacylglycerol/fat. |
| Free radicals | unstable molecules that can cause damage to cells, DNA, lipids and protein. They are unstable as they have one or more unpaired electrons in their outer shell. |
| Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase | an enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrates) |
| Fungicidal | destroying or inhibiting the growth of fungi. |
| Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) | an inhibitory neurotransmitter which decreases activity of the central nervous system. |
| Gastric lesions | damage to the stomach, which include ulcers, enlargement due to tissue growth as the result of increased cell proliferation, inflammation of the lining (mucosa) of the stomach. |
| Gastric motility | movement of food along the gastro-intestinal tract. |
| Gastric mucosa | lining of stomach. |
| Genotoxicity | damaging to DNA. |
| Gingivitis | inflammation of the gums, which if left untreated can lead to gum disease. |
| Glucagon | a hormone produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It is involved in the regulation of glucose and triglyceride metabolism by increasing the levels of glucose and fatty acids in the blood. |
| Glucokinase | an enzyme involved in glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose) in the liver. |
| Gluconeogenesis | the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrates. |
| Glucose 6 phosphatase | an enzyme found mainly in the kidney and liver which is involved in gluconeogenesis. |
| Glucose homeostasis | the maintenance of glucose levels/concentration within a narrow range. |
| Glucose oxidation | the conversion of glucose to carbon dioxide. This process results in the release of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). |
| Glucose tolerance | the ability to dispose (metabolise) of a glucose load (for example a glucose drink or white bread). |
| Glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT 4) | insulin dependent glucose transporter found in adipose tissue, skeletal and cardiac muscle. |
| Glucuronidase | an enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates for example starch. |
| Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) | an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. |
| Glutathione S-transferase | a phase 2 enzyme involved in the detoxification of pro-carcinogens and carcinogens. |
| Glutamatergic compounds | compounds/agents that mimic and modulate the amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate respectively. |
| Glycaemic control | maintenance of normal blood glucose levels – see cinnamon chapter. |
| Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) | glucose bound to haemoglobin. It is a biomarker of diabetes and can lead to the vascular complications that result from this disease. |
| Glycogen | a glucose polysaccharide found in the liver and skeletal muscle. It is the main storage form of glucose in the human body. |
| Glycoprotein | a protein bound to a carbohydrate. |
| Glycoside | a molecule in which a carbohydrate is bound to a non carbohydrate compound, for example a flavonoid, via a glycosidic bond. |
| Gram-negative | bacteria that have a cell wall made up of a thin layer of peptidoglycans (polymers of carbohydrates and amino acids). When undergoing a technique called Gram staining they stain pink/red. |
| Gram-positive | bacteria that have a cell wall made up of a thick layer of peptidoglycans (polymers of carbohydrates and amino acids). When undergoing a technique called Gram staining they stain purple/violet. |
| Granuloma | a granuloma forms as a result of infection or inflammation; it is a collection of macrophages. |
| Haematocrit | the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood, platelet and red blood cell number. |
| Hepatic fatty acid synthase | an enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of long chain fatty acids in the liver. |
| Hepatic steatosis | accumulation of triglyceride (fat) in liver, which results in liver enlargement and dysfunction. |
| Heterogeneity | variability in study design and/or outcomes. |
| High density lipoprotein cholesterol | cholesterol removed from blood by high density lipoproteins and carried back to the liver. It is also referred to as ‘good’ cholesterol as elevated levels are associated with a decrease risk of cardiovascular disease. |
| Hip circumference | the distance around the largest parts of one's hips. It is used with the waist circumference to determine the waist-hip ratio, which is used for determining body fat distribution and as an indicator/marker of cardiovascular disease risk. |
| Hippocampus | a region of the brain involved in the formation of new memories. It is also involved in/associated with learning and emotions. |
| Histamine | an allergic response mediator. |
| Histone | a protein that binds to DNA. Histones through this binding are essential for the packaging of DNA into chromosomes. |
| Homeostasis | the state of steady internal conditions maintained via tight regulatory processes. |
| Hormone sensitive lipase | an enzyme that breaks down triglyceride (fat) to fatty acids in adipose tissue. |
| Hydroalcoholic extract | culinary herb or spice extracted in a water and ethanol solvent mix. |
| Hypercholesterolemia | elevated cholesterol levels. |
| Hyperglycaemia | high blood glucose. |
| Hyperlipidemia | high blood lipid. |
| Hyperlipidemic | low blood lipid. |
| Hypertension | high blood pressure. |
| Hypoglycaemia | low blood glucose. |
| Hypothermia | dangerously low body temperature due to the body losing heat faster that it can produce heat. |
| Immunoglobulin E (IgE) | a class of antibodies involved in the generation of allergic reactions known as type 1 reactions. |
| Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) | an enzyme that produces nitric oxide from arginine. It is a key inflammatory mediator. |
| Infantile colic | a condition in which an infant has repeated episodes of excessive crying. The causes are not clear but a number of conditions have been put forward including food allergies, food intolerance, gastrointestinal inflammation and poor feeding technique. |
| Interleukin 1 | a cytokine that plays a key role in regulating and mediating immune and inflammatory responses. |
| Interleukin 1 beta (β) | a cytokine and a form of interleukin 1. It is a key mediator of the inflammatory response. |
| Interleukin 6 | a cytokine and key mediator of immune responses. It plays a key role in activating host defenses shortly after an injury or an infection occurs and is a pro-inflammatory cytokine. |
| Interleukin 8 | a pro-inflammatory cytokine. |
| Intestinal mucosa | the innermost lining of the intestinal tract. It is involved in absorption and consists of epithelial cells. It also acts as a barrier against infectious agents. |
| Intraperitoneal (i.p.) | within or administered via the peritoneum. The peritoneum is a thin, transparent membrane which lines the abdominal cavity and encloses abdominal organs within this cavity. |
| Ischaemia | restriction of blood flow to tissue leading to a lack of oxygen resulting in tissue damage or tissue death – see basil chapter. |
| Isoenzyme | enzymes with different structural forms but the same enzyme activity. |
| Isoprostanes | products formed from the peroxidation of essential fatty acids by free radicals – they are used as a marker of oxidative stress. |
| In vitro | meaning ‘in glass’ and describes studies/experiments on microorganisms, cells and tissues outside their normal environment, for example in a test tube, petri dish, plate or flask. |
| In vivo | studies carried out using whole and living organisms, for example animals or humans. |
| Ketonuria | a condition in which ketone bodies are present in urine. |
| Larvicidal | action against the immature form of a parasite. |
| LD50 | lethal dose for 50% of the test sample (group) used. |
| Leukocytosis | a marked increase in the number of whole blood cells. |
| Lipid peroxidation | oxidative degradation of lipids by free radicals – it is a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Lipids | molecules that contain hydrogen, carbon and oxygen and tend to be insoluble in water. Lipids of concern with regards to diet and health include cholesterol and triglycerides (fat). |
| Lipolysis | breakdown of triglyceride. |
| Lipogenesis | synthesis of triglyceride. |
| Lipoprotein | complex particles made up of proteins and lipids which transport lipids including triglycerides (fat) and cholesterol. There are four types – low density lipoprotein (see below), high density lipoprotein (see above), very low density lipoprotein (see below) and chylomicrons, which transport dietary triglyceride (fat). |
| Lipoxygenases | enzymes involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response via the synthesis of leukotrienes, which are pro-inflammatory mediators. They are also involved in the synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators. |
| Low density lipoprotein cholesterol | cholesterol transported by low density lipoproteins from the liver to other tissue. Also referred to as ‘bad cholesterol’ as elevated levels are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. |
| Luteinising hormone (LH) | a hormone which triggers the ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum (which are cells in the ovaries that produce progesterone during early pregnancy). |
| Malondialdehyde (MDA) | a reactive aldehyde and a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Medium chain fatty acids | fatty acids with between 6 and 12 carbon atoms. |
| Meridians | paths through which ‘qi’ life-energy flows. Meridians are used in traditional Chinese medicines. |
| Mesenteric fat | fat attached to the intestines. |
| Meta-analysis | a statistical analysis of combined results/data from multiple studies identified by a systematic review. |
| Metabolic syndrome (MetS) | a combination of diabetes, high blood pressure (hypertension), elevated lipid (triglyceride (fat) and/or cholesterol levels) – hyperlipidemia – excess fat around the waist, and high blood glucose levels (hyperglycaemia); it can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (coronary heart disease, stroke). |
| Metal-chelating property | the ability to bind to metals and to form stable complexes that are water soluble. This property is used to treat excessively high levels of iron, lead and also copper. |
| Metal-chelator | an agent able to bind to metals to form stable complexes that are water soluble. |
| Metastases/Metastatic | the spreading of cancer beyond its original site to other parts of the body. |
| Microencapsulation | a technique by which the active ingredients are packaged within a second material for shielding the active ingredient from the surrounding environment. |
| Mid upper arm circumference | the circumference of the upper arm (the non-dominant arm). It is used to assess nutritional status. |
| Monocyte | white blood cells/immune cells which differentiate (develop) into macrophages or dendritic cells. |
| Motor activity | movement. |
| Mucin | a glycoprotein produced by epithelial cells. Mucus consists of mucins. |
| Mucous membrane | a membrane that lines cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs including the gastrointestinal tract and its organs. |
| Mutagen | an agent that causes mutations. |
| Mutagenesis | the changing of DNA that results in mutations. |
| Mutagenic | causes a mutation. |
| Myocardial injury | damage to heart muscle resulting in for example myocardial infarction (heart attack). |
| Narrative review | a comprehensive and objective analysis of research on a topic using peer reviewed literature. It is also referred to as a literature review. |
| Neuroblastoma | cancer that develops in immature nerve cells. |
| Neurofibrillary tangle formation | the aggregation of tau proteins which are abundant in neurons (nerve cells) in the central nervous system. This formation is a feature/characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. |
| Neuropathy | damage or dysfunction of nerves which result in numbness, tingling, pain and muscle weakness in the affected areas. |
| Neutrophils | a type of white blood/immune cell. |
| Nitric oxide | a free radical, pro-inflammatory mediator and lowers blood pressure by stimulation vasodilation. |
| Nitrosative | the ability to introduce nitric oxide (NO) into organic compounds. Nitrosative stress, as with oxidative stress, gives rise to cell damage and is said to be involved in the development of chronic disease via the action of reactive nitrogen species, which are formed due to very high levels of NO. |
| No observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) | the highest dose at which no toxic or adverse effect is observed. |
| Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) | a group of conditions caused by the accumulation of fat in the liver. |
| Non-peer review | work that is not evaluated by individuals who are expert in an appropriate field of research. |
| Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) | a class of drugs that are not steroids which are used to decrease pain, inflammation, fever and blood clots. |
| Normotensive | normal blood pressure. |
| Nuclear factor κB (NFκB) (full name – nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) | a protein that regulates immune and inflammatory responses via activating the expression of genes involved in these responses. |
| Oedema | fluid retention. |
| Oestradiol (also estradiol) | is an oestrogen steroid and the main oestrogen in women. The other oestrogen hormones are estrone (made after menopause) and estriol (the main oestrogen/estrogen during pregnancy). |
| Oestrogen/estrogen | a class of female steroid hormones. |
| Oestrogen/estrogen receptor negative breast cancer | breast cancer that does not have any oestrogen/estrogen receptors. It tends to grow faster than oestrogen positive breast cancer. |
| Oestrogen/estrogen receptor positive breast cancer | breast cancer that has oestrogen receptors. This type of breast cancer uses of oestrogen to grow. |
| Open label | not a blinded study; the participants and investigators know what treatment they have been given/what intervention they have received. |
| Opioid | pain relieving drugs. |
| Osteoclasts | bone cells that break down bone tissue – a process that is required for normal bone formation and remodelling. |
| Oxidative stress | imbalance between antioxidants and reactive oxygen species in the body. The latter are in excess. |
| Pancreatic beta (β) cells | cells in the pancreas that synthesize and release insulin. |
| Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) | part of the autonomic nervous system the PNS decreases respiration, heart rate and blood pressure and increases digestion, the production of saliva and mucus and urine secretion, and by doing so conserves energy. |
| Pathogenic | causes disease. |
| Peer review | work that is evaluated by individuals who are expert in an appropriate field of research. |
| Percentage body fat | the percentage of total body mass that is fat. |
| Peripheral nervous system | the peripheral nervous system extends beyond the brain and spinal cord and forms a communication network between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. |
| Periodontitis | gum disease. |
| Peritoneal | pertaining to the peritoneum – a membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the surface of abdominal organs including the liver and intestines. |
| Phagocytic activity | the engulfing/ingestion of bacteria, harmful foreign particles and dead and dying cells. |
| Phagocytic cells | immune cells that use the process of phagocytosis. |
| Phagocytosis | engulfing of bacteria, debris and dead cells by immune cells. |
| Phase 1 enzymes | enzymes involved in drug metabolism. Phase 1 enzymes also activate pro-carcinogens. The cytochrome P450 enzymes are phase 1 enzymes. |
| Phase 2 detoxification | a process which involves the removal of carcinogens and procarcinogens. |
| Phase 2 enzymes | enzymes involved in drug metabolism. Many but not all phase 2 enzymes are involved in the detoxification of carcinogens or procarcinogen. The glutathione S-transferases are phase 2 enzymes. |
| Placebo | an intervention or treatment that has no therapeutic value. |
| Plaques of β-amyloid fibrils | these characterize Alzheimer's disease and are neurotoxic as they destroy connections between neurons. |
| Platelet aggregation | this process – the clumping together of platelets plays an important role in the development of arterial thrombosis. |
| Platelets | small blood cells that form clots via a process called aggregation. |
| Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) | an endocrine disorder that gives rise to a number of conditions in women of reproductive/child bearing age including hyperandrogenism (excess androgen (male hormone) levels), irregular menstrual cycles and/or polycystic ovaries (ovaries that form small fluid filled sacs, also called follicles, which may fail to release eggs). |
| Postprandial | the period following the consumption of food or a meal. |
| PPM | parts per million, for example 1 mg in 1 Litre. |
| Pre-adipocytes | cells that develop/differentiate into fat cells. |
| Precursor | a compound from which another compound is formed via a chemical reaction. |
| Pre-diabetic | a subject who has a higher than normal blood glucose which is not high enough for their condition to be diagnosed as type 2 diabetes. However, they have an increased risk therefore of developing type 2 diabetes. The preferred term is intermediate hyperglycaemia to avoid any stigma linked to the word diabetes. |
| Preprandial | before the consumption of food or a meal. |
| Pro-inflammatory | promotes inflammation. |
| Prolactin | a hormone required for breast growth and development and breast milk production. |
| Prostacyclins | members of the prostaglandin family. |
| Prostaglandins | family of lipids produced at the site of tissue damage or infection. They are key mediators/regulators of inflammation/tissue injury – see basil chapter. |
| Protein glycation | the binding of glucose to a protein. Protein glycation is a biomarker of diabetes and can lead to the vascular complications that result from this disease. An example of a glycated protein is glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c). |
| Proteinuria | excess protein in urine. |
| Pro-thrombotic | promotes thrombosis/blood clotting. |
| Provitamin A | carotenoids, such as beta-carotene and alpha carotene, that are converted to vitamin A. Provitamin A is found in plant foods. Please note: not all carotenoids can be converted to vitamin A. |
| Quorum sensing | a process in which bacteria release chemicals that act as signalling molecules via which bacteria are able to sense the number of bacteria and as a consequence behaviour. In the case of pathogenic bacteria this behaviour is virulence, which is the severity of the infection. |
| Radical scavenging | scavenging of free radicals by compounds such as antioxidants. |
| Randomization | subjects are randomly assigned to different groups. Randomization reduces the risk of bias in experiments. |
| Randomized crossover trial | a study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive a sequence of treatments. |
| Randomized triple blind placebo controlled clinical trial | a randomized experiment in which the participants are randomly assigned to an intervention/treatment which is unknown to the participants, those who give the intervention/treatment and those who assess the outcomes. |
| Reactive oxygen species | unstable/highly reactive oxygen containing molecules, which can cause cell damage/cell death by interacting/reacting with proteins, lipids and DNA. |
| Reactive nitrogen species | highly reactive molecules derived from nitric oxide which can cause cell damage/cell death by interacting/reacting with proteins, lipids and DNA. |
| Receptor | a protein or glycoprotein that initiates a biological/biochemical/chemical response by binding to molecules commonly preferred to as ligands or messengers. |
| Reduced glutathione (GSH) | reduced form of glutathione, which is a tripeptide (a small protein). The reduced form of glutathione is an antioxidant. |
| Reducing power | the ability of a chemical to reduce (give electron to) another compound. It is used by some as a measure of antioxidant capacity. |
| Reperfusion-induced cerebral damage | restoration of blood flow to previously ischaemic (see above for ischaemia) tissue resulting in extensive/increased tissue damage. |
| Reporting bias | only favourable results are reported leading to inappropriate conclusions. |
| Research bias | an error introduced into a research study which can result in false or misleading conclusions. |
| Retrospective cohort study | a study in which investigators look back at/analyse already obtained data obtained from a cohort to determine an association between an exposure and an outcome. |
| Saponin | bitter tasting compound normally derived from plants. |
| Selection bias | introduction of bias into the selection of participants resulting in randomization not being properly achieved. The end result is results/outcomes that do not represent the population the investigator intended to investigate. |
| Serotonergic | an effect that results in the mimicking or release of the neurotransmitter serotonin. |
| Single centred study | a study in which participants/subjects from a hospital, clinic, region or country are used. |
| Split mouth study design | a study design popular in oral health research in which each of two treatments are randomly assigned to either the right or left side of the dentition (teeth). |
| Squamous | relates to thin flattened cells that make up a layer of epithelium. |
| Sub-mucosa | a layer of connective tissue that supports/sits under the mucosa. |
| Substrate | a molecule or compound that undergoes a chemical reaction under the action of an enzyme or other catalyst resulting in a product. |
| Supercritical fluid | any substance with properties between a gas and a liquid. |
| Supercritical fluid extraction | extraction using a supercritical fluid. |
| Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) | part of the autonomic nervous system, the SNS readies the body for the fight or flight response by increasing heart rate and respiration and therefore increases energy expenditure. |
| Superoxide dismutase (SOD) | an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of the free radical superoxide to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen. |
| Superoxide radical | a free radical. |
| Synergy | occurs when the biological effect of two agents or compounds exceed that of the sum of the biological effects of the individual agents or compounds. |
| Systematic review | a type of literature review in which the collection of data (obtained from peer reviewed research papers) and the analysis and critical appraisal of the data are carried out using a systematic approach. |
| Systolic blood pressure | pressure blood exerts against the arterial wall when the heart beats. It is the top number of a blood pressure reading. |
| T cell | a type of lymphocyte, which is an immune/white blood cell. |
| Tachycardia | term for when the heart rate is over 100 beats per minute. |
| Thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) | a marker of oxidative stress. |
| Tincture | an extract prepared/dissolved with/in ethanol. |
| Total antioxidant power/capacity | used to assess antioxidant status. |
| Toxigenic fungi | fungi that produce toxins for example mycotoxins. |
| Triphala | also known as the three fruits is a polyherbal Ayurvedic formulation. |
| Triglyceride | a dietary lipid, also known as fat or triacylglycerol. |
| Tumorigenesis | tumour formation. |
| Tumorigenic | forming or tending to form tumours. |
| Tumour multiplicity | the mean number of tumours per organism. |
| Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) | a pro-inflammatory cytokine. |
| Uropathogen | a pathogen that causes urinary tract infection. |
| Vascular permeability | the capacity of the blood vessel wall to allow small molecules and cells in and out of the vessel. Vascular permeability increases due to inflammation. |
| Vascular relaxation | relaxation of smooth muscle in blood vessels. |
| Vasodilatory | opening/dilation of blood vessels. |
| Vasoprotective | ability to protect blood vessels from certain conditions. |
| Very low density lipoprotein cholesterol | cholesterol transported by very low density lipoproteins, which are made in the liver. Although it carries cholesterol from the liver to other tissues, it mainly transports triglyceride (fat) in the body. |
| Waist-hip ratio | the ratio of the waist circumference to the hip circumference. It is used for determining body fat distribution and as an indicator/marker of cardiovascular disease risk. |
| Waist circumference | the circumference of one's abdomen at the level of the umbilicus (belly button). It is a good measure of visceral fat and so on its own it can be used as a marker of high blood lipid levels, high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes. It can also be used to determine one's waist hip ratio, which can be used as an indicator/marker of cardiovascular disease risk. |
